Abstract Introduction
Most schools want to improve school, family, and community partnerships, but most have not reached their goal. Indeed, developing good connections between home, school, and community is an ongoing process that takes time, organization, and effort. Based on more than a decade of research and the work of many educators, parents, students, and others, we have learned that, despite real challenges, it is possible for all elementary, middle, and high schools to develop and maintain productive partnerships with families and communities.
The National Network of Partnership Schools at Johns Hopkins University's Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships was established by researchers to guide schools, districts, and state departments of education to create positive, permanent programs of partnership, to recognize and disseminate their efforts, and to learn from the various approaches that are implemented in diverse policy environments and at all levels of schooling. The guidance offered to members is based on the theoretical model of "overlapping spheres of influence" (Epstein, 1987) that states that students learn and grow in three main contexts-home, school, and community. Research supports the theory that students are more likely to succeed when home, school, and community work together, send common messages to students, and help students proceed with their education (Booth & Dunn, 1996; Epstein, 1996; Ryan, Adams, Gullotta, Weissberg, & Hampton, 1995; Schneider & Coleman, 1993). The knowledge gained in studies and fieldwork with many schools creates a base on which other schools can build.
Schools, districts, and state departments of education that are interested in developing and maintaining programs of partnership can join the Network to obtain support for their efforts. For each school, district, and state that joins, the Center will:
- Supply a handbook to guide the work of Action Teams.
- Issue a Certificate of Membership.
- Conduct semiannual training workshops at Johns Hopkins.
- Distribute Type 2, the Network's semiannual newsletter.
- Provide technical assistance by phone, e-mail, and Web site.
- Offer optional research and evaluation opportunities.
Since 1996, schools, districts, and state departments of education from across the country (and in American Department of Defense System schools in six countries abroad) have joined the National Network of Partnership Schools to develop school-family-community partnerships. As of the end of August 1997, over 650 schools, 60 districts, and 7 states were members of the Network for the 1997-98 school year. Other schools, districts, and states are in the process of completing membership forms for the 1997-98 school year.
Members of the Network are diverse in terms of demographic characteristics and starting points in partnership activities. Schools in the Network are located in large cities (25%), small cities (24%), small towns (18%), suburbs (22%), and rural areas (11%). The schools vary according to poverty status with 10 schools reporting no students receiving free or reduced-price lunch, 10 schools indicating 100% of students receiving free or reduced-price lunch, and the remainder of the schools falling in between.
Also, schools join the Network with different starting points for school-family-community connections, with some reporting connections with families as "low" and others as "high." Schools face a variety of challenges to partnerships. For example, some report that communicating effectively with linguistically diverse families is their primary challenge. Others indicate that planning activities and events that are responsive to the schedules of working parents is a key challenge they must address to better inform and involve all families.
The reported initial quality of the school-family-community partnership program also varies among the schools with 12% stating they had a "start-up program," 33% with a "fair/average program," 29% with a "good program," 19% with a "very good program," and 5% with an "excellent program."
Web Site-http://www.csos.jhu.edu/p2000/
With such diverse membership, the Network must offer information and support in varied ways. An interactive Web site is one way to provide information to all members and still retain personal connections and relationships that are at the heart of school, family, and community partnerships. The Web site (http://www.csos.jhu.edu/p2000/) for the National Network of Partnership Schools is designed as a technological tool to help members develop, maintain, and improve their partnership programs.
In addition to helping each school, district, and state design its own responsive and effective program of partnerships, the Network's Web site links schools, districts, and state departments around the country so that information, support, and guidance may be shared. Thus, technology can decrease the sense of fear that educators and families often experience as they start to think about increasing collaborative activities, or the isolation that some schools feel as they begin to develop a program of partnerships. The Web site aims to help educators and families learn that many others are struggling with similar challenges in program development and school improvement, and that the Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships at Johns Hopkins University is a place where they can obtain research-based materials and timely assistance.
Content Design
We designed the content of the Web site for two types of visitors: Network members and potential members. Potential members may review how to build a school-family-community partnership program, how to become a member of the Network, and what it means to be a member. Members benefit from a list of frequently asked questions that are updated on a regular basis and a place where members' success stories are spotlighted. For all visitors, we post information on contacting Partnership Schools staff, available publications, and links to other sites dedicated to school-family-community partnerships.Technological Design
The Partnership Schools Web site contains a large amount of information for members and other visitors, so we attempt to present this content in a visually appealing layout. We arrange text so that visitors do not have to read across the entire width of a computer screen. Additionally, we chose a simple white background with colored text for ease in reading.A unified look throughout the site was created by using similarly designed page headings and the National Network of Partnership Schools logo. The logo appears at the top of the home page and is the first graphic that visitors see when entering the site. The logo is also "buttonized" on the bottom of every page and may be clicked on to return to the home page.
The Network's Web site helps educators build partnership programs only if visitors can access its resources. We designed the Web site knowing that members use a range of technology. Some visitors may use a slow modem or a text-only browser, while others may have fast ethernet connections that allow for speedy downloading of graphic files. Some visitors' browsers may not be able to view frames, interpret java script, or use forms. Consequently, we try to avoid incorporating components that may frustrate users of low-end computers or browsers.
A Virtual Tour
We created eight sections on the Web site to keep the content organized and manageable. From the eight "buttons" on the home page (Partnership Program, Membership, Frequently Asked Questions, Membership Services, Publications, In the Spotlight, Contact the Staff, and Links), visitors branch off into content-rich pages that describe the information necessary to become a member of the Network and to strengthen current members' partnership programs.
In the remainder of this paper, we take the reader on a "virtual tour," describing each section of the National Network of Partnership Schools' Web site. Visitors select the order in which they view the sections based on their interests. As a result, some information is presented in more than one section so that visitors can easily access related topics. We begin our discussion with Partnership Program, the section that explains how to build school-family-community connections.
Partnership Program
This section of the Web site introduces the main components that help schools, districts, and states develop their partnership programs. The components and all related information and forms are provided in the Network's handbook: School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action (Epstein, Coates, Salinas, Sanders, & Simon, 1997). These components on the Web site include: Epstein's framework of six types of involvement, the Action Team approach, planning and evaluating partnership practices, district and state leadership, training workshops for Action Teams and end-of-year celebrations, budgets and funding, and ten steps to school-family-community partnerships. Visitors may click on these components for information.
Epstein's Framework of Six Types of Involvement
The framework, based on research and on fieldwork in elementary, middle, and high schools, helps educators develop comprehensive programs of school and family partnerships by focusing on Type 1-Parenting, Type 2-Communicating, Type 3-Volunteering, Type 4-Learning at Home, Type 5-Decision Making, and Type 6-Collaborating with the Community. The six types of involvement are not hierarchical or mutually exclusive, because each type is important for producing different results. In addition, some partnership practices cover more than one type of involvement. For example, a family literacy program is both a Type 1 activity because it helps parents improve their own skills and a Type 4 activity because it enables parents to help their children with reading at home. Ideally, a partnership program includes practices from all six types of involvement that are implemented, improved, or maintained during each school year.Visitors may click on links to view sample practices for each type of involvement, challenges that must be met, redefinitions of basic principles of involvement, and various expected results for students, parents, and teachers.
Sample Practices.This link includes several common practices for each type of involvement that have been effectively implemented in many schools and at different grade levels.
Challenges and Redefinitions. Visitors who click on this link see that each type of involvement has particular challenges that must be met in order to involve all families at all grade levels. Each type also requires redefinitions of some basic principles of involvement for an up-to-date understanding of diverse needs of families. A few examples of program-design features that will enable schools to meet the challenges are listed. Meeting the challenges turns an ordinary partnership program into an excellent partnership program.
Results.Each type of involvement leads to different results for students, families, and teachers. This link on the Web site provides a few examples of benefits that have been measured or observed for each type of involvement. Members of the Network are guided to select or design practices of partnership that will reach specific goals that are set by their school. For example, the lists of results show that Type 1-Parenting activities may help families understand their role in getting their children to school on time and, thereby, improve attendance. By contrast, Type 4-Learning at Home activities may help families and children interact on math homework and, thereby, help students complete their homework and build their math skills.
Action Teams for School, Family, and Community Partnerships
The Action Team for School, Family, and Community Partnerships is the "action arm" of a partnership program and an important part of a school improvement team, if one exists. The Action Team assesses present partnership practices, organizes new partnership activities, implements selected activities, evaluates next steps, and continues to develop and coordinate practices for all six types of involvement.This link explains that the Action Team members include two to three teachers from different grade levels, two to three parents with children in different grade levels and/or the parent liaison or parent association officer, and one administrator. Action Teams may also include business partners or other community members, students in middle and high schools, and others who are central to the school's work with families such as the nurse, guidance counselor, school social worker, or others. Diverse membership is important so that partnership activities account for the various needs, interests, and talents of educators, families, students, and the community.
Each member of the Action Team serves as a chair or co-chair of a committee for one of the six types of involvement. A team with at least six members (or as many as twelve) ensures that leadership responsibilities are delegated so that one person is not overburdened and the work of the Action Team will continue even if members move or change positions.
Planning and Evaluation
This link from Partnership Program summarizes the forms that have been created to help Action Teams for School, Family, and Community Partnerships plan, implement, and evaluate their work. Using these forms that are in the handbook, all Action Teams can:- Complete an inventory of present practices of school-family-community partnerships.
- Outline a vision of how practices of partnership will develop and improve over 3 years.
- Prepare a detailed 1-year action plan indicating how the Action Team will schedule and conduct activities to reach specific results for 1 school year.
- Evaluate their school, family, and community partnerships program each year in order to continue improving practices.
This page on the Web site describes how district leadership can help every school develop strong programs of school, family, and community partnerships by establishing district policies and procedures that facilitate and recognize the work of Action Teams, and by identifying and coordinating all district-level programs and activities that involve families and communities. District-level facilitators can help their schools set a course, stay on course, reach their goals, share ideas with one another, and continue their plans and programs. In districts with 15 schools or more, full-time facilitators conduct training, planning, networking, and technical assistance activities.
State Leadership
This page lists the responsibilities of state leaders such as establishing state policies and procedures that will help their districts help all schools develop strong programs of partnership, and identifying and coordinating all state-level programs and activities that involve families and communities. A state-level department for school, family, and community partnerships may provide training, funding, and recognition, support research and evaluation, and work with state colleges and universities and business and industry. Ideally, state and district leaders will work together to offer schools expertise and resources that will ensure successful partnership programs across the country.Training Workshops and End-of-Year Celebrations
This link describes two different kinds of workshops conducted by state coordinators, district facilitators, or school leaders that are designed for Action Teams for School, Family, and Community Partnerships or other audiences interested in developing programs of partnership. The workshops present a common vocabulary, background, and processes that enable educators, parents, and others to talk and work together to build their programs of partnership. The Training Workshop includes a warm-up activity, information on the six types of involvement, the Action Team approach, a focus on results, and next steps. The End-of-Year Celebration Workshop is conducted to recognize progress that is made each year in improving school-family-community partnerships. It helps organize presentations on best practices, panel discussions on problems and solutions, school exhibits, and continuation plans.Budgets and Funding
Even a basic school-family-community partnership program requires some money to implement activities such as mailing newsletters or serving refreshments at back-to-school night. Well-developed partnership programs require larger budgets to implement more extensive outreach or larger numbers of practices. District and state partnership programs require budgets for staff and program costs. Compared to other school improvement initiatives such as curriculum reform, school-family-community connections is a relatively inexpensive program. For many schools, districts, and states, funds are available in Title I, Title VI, and other federal and state initiatives. Some schools, districts, and states write proposals and receive funding from foundations, businesses, and other local and national sources. This link on the Web site includes a list of sources and levels of funds that are helping Network members develop programs of partnership. Securing funds and making school, family, and community connections a line item in a school, district, or state budget ensures strong, permanent partnership programs.Ten Steps to School-Family-Community Partnerships
This final link from Partnership Program ties the components of comprehensive partnership programs together in a useful list. With help from district and state leaders, schools should create or identify an Action Team, obtain funds and support, provide training and guidelines to Action Team members, identify present strengths and weaknesses of the current partnership program, develop a 3-year vision, write a 1-year action plan, enlist help from others to conduct activities, evaluate practices and their results, conduct an annual celebration of progress, and continue working toward a comprehensive, ongoing, positive program of partnerships.Membership
This section of the Web site explains the membership requirements that schools, districts, and state departments of education must meet to become members of the National Network of Partnership Schools. Members work with the Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships to improve connections with students, families, and communities. There is no fee to join the Network, but there are membership requirements.
Schools agree to:
- Create or identify an Action Team for School, Family, and Community Partnerships.
- Use the framework of six types of involvement to plan a program of partnerships.
- Allocate an annual budget for the work and activities of the Action Team.
- Communicate annually with the Center to share plans and progress.
- Assign a full-time facilitator to work with Action Teams in 15 to 25 schools on their plans, implementations, sharing of activities, and connections with the Network. (Districts with fewer than 15 participating schools may propose a part-time equivalent facilitator.)
- Allocate an annual budget for the work and activities of the district staff.
- Assist each participating school to fulfill the requirements for the school level (listed above).
- Communicate annually with the Center to share plans and progress.
- Create or identify an Office or Department for School, Family, and Community Partnerships.
- Assign the equivalent of one full-time professional coordinator and adequate staff to conduct leadership activities for school-family-community partnerships across districts.
- Allocate an annual budget for the work and activities of the state's Department for School, Family, and Community Partnerships (see above) to support the districts and schools in the Network.
- Assist participating districts and schools to fulfill the requirements listed for district-level and school-level members of the Network (listed above).
- Communicate annually with the Center to share plans and progress.
After visitors have read the membership requirements, they may request a membership form online. By completing a simple form, individuals may request that an invitation and membership forms be sent to them at their mailing address. Visitors without a forms-capable browser may use our e-mail address, telephone number, or mailing address to request membership forms.
Frequently Asked Questions
Each school, district, and state will develop, implement, evaluate, and improve its own school-family-community partnership program tailored to the goals, needs, and interests of each location. There are, however, common questions and concerns that may be shared across sites. In this section of the Web site, we share frequently asked questions from members and answers from the staff. The Partnership Schools staff has addressed questions pertaining to such issues as meeting partnership challenges, allocating budgets, forming Action Teams, and planning meeting times for the Action Teams. When the staff's responses refer to Network components (i.e., Action Team for School, Family, and Community Partnerships, six types of involvement, Type 2 Newsletter, training work-shops, etc.), links are included to the pages on the Web site that provide additional information about the topic.
The Frequently Asked Questions section also contains a form that enables visitors to submit their own questions and ideas. We post selected questions that may be of interest to the Network and use e-mail to respond directly to those posing questions specific to a particular site. Again, visitors without a forms-capable browser can use our e-mail address and mailing address to submit questions and receive responses from the Network's staff.
The Frequently Asked Questions section begins to address the Network's goal of linking together the many schools, districts, and state departments of education that are working to improve school, family, and community connections. By posting members' questions and responses, we begin the dialogue within the Network.
Member Services
This section of the Web site outlines how the Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships assists members of the National Network of Partnership Schools. The services provided by the Center are designed to give Network members information and technical assistance, ways of communicating with staff and members, and opportunities to participate in optional cross-site research and evaluation projects. Visitors may learn more by clicking on: Handbook, Training Workshops for Network members, Type 2, Staff, and Focus on Results.
School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action
One copy of School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action (Epstein, Coates, Salinas, Sanders, & Simon, 1997) is provided to Network members free of charge. This handbook is based on knowledge gained over many years talking and working with hundreds of teachers and administrators, and thousands of families and students in schools, towns, and cities across the country. The structures and processes in the handbook have been tested; materials have been developed and improved; and information has been expanded from the elementary to the high school grades. It is a "user-friendly" book designed to provide useful guidelines and tools that Action Teams can use to organize a comprehensive program of partnerships. The information, forms, and activities also help state and district leaders support, facilitate, and reward the work of their schools. The handbook's eight chapters (Background, Practical Applications, Workshops, Reproducibles, Plans and Progress, Group Activities, Special Topics, and Networking) offer step-by-step strategies to improve school-family-community connections.Training Workshops for Network Members
This link provides visitors with a brief description and future dates of Training Workshops for Network Members that are conducted at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. Twice each year, in March and June, Network members from states, districts, and schools are invited to an optional introductory workshop. The two-day workshops help participants conduct their own training workshops with their schools and move forward with their program development activities at the school, district, and state levels. There is no charge for the workshop, but participants must arrange and pay for their own travel, hotel, meals, and other expenses. To get a taste of the attractions in Baltimore, visitors can link to http://www.baltimore.com.Type 2
This link introduces visitors to the semiannual newsletter of the National Network of Partnership Schools. Type 2 shares examples of best practices, solutions to challenges, and guidelines for incremental improvement in program development. Members may submit articles and pictures about their partnership practices and progress. The first two issues of the newsletter are posted on the Web site, including Issues and Insights from the Director, Meeting the Challenge, State Line, District Record, School Report, and Research Briefs. Type 2 is primarily disseminated to Network members. By including excerpts from Type 2 on our Web site, we can share the information from the newsletters with a larger audience.Contact the Staff
This page describes the Partnership Schools staff to visitors and provides contact information. Partnership Schools staff encourage dialogue with Network members by listing our e-mail address, telephone number, and mailing address on several pages. The staff cannot make site visits to every school, district, or state that joins the Network. Alternatively, we provide assistance by telephone, e-mail, and Web site to answer questions related to school-family-community partnerships and program development. The communications director for the Network responds to all e-mail, Web site comments, questions, and requests for more information.Focus on Results
Each year, Network members are invited to participate in an optional research and evaluation opportunity called Focus on Results. The purpose is to learn about how practices of school-family-community partnerships help reach specific academic and school improvement goals. Members of the Network may voluntarily join the cross-site project to learn which practices produce measurable results for students, families, and the schools. The topic selected for Focus on Results 1996-97 was student attendance. In 1997-98, we will explore how family and community connections help improve or maintain math achievement. Results from these studies will be shared with all Network members on the Web site, as well as in Type 2 and other communications.Publications
Many publications are available from the Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships to help build strong school-family-community connections. This section of the Web site links to the following featured publications: School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action, Type 2, Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS), and School and Family Partnerships: Surveys and Summaries. Information for ordering these publications and others is provided.
School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action guides school leaders and district and state facilitators to plan, implement, and improve comprehensive partnership programs.
Type 2, the semiannual newsletter, provides timely information about member progress, new research, and dates for upcoming Network activities.
Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) is an interactive homework process that enables students to show, share, demonstrate, and discuss schoolwork with a family member. Manuals for teachers and prototype interactive homework activities are available for math in grades K-5 and science grade 3, and in language arts, science/health, and math for middle grades 6-8. TIPS activities are designed for all grades, all subjects, and all families.
School and Family Partnerships: Surveys and Summaries helps schools identify and analyze current partnership practices. Teacher and parent surveys for the elementary and middle grades and teacher, parent, and student surveys for high schools are available. Using the data from these surveys, schools can outline their 3-year vision and develop a 1-year action plan.
In the Spotlight
Members of the National Network of Partnership Schools are working hard to bring schools, families, and communities together in productive ways. To recognize members' achievements, we have dedicated a section on the Web site to spotlight promising practices. Following an annual call for "Best Practices," members submit practices that have proven to be successful in their partnership program. For example, we featured a school in Enfield, Connecticut, for its success with a schoolwide interactive homework project. The results of student-family projects were displayed in hallways throughout the school. Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, was spotlighted for its informational brochures that explained in parent-friendly language learning outcomes for each grade level. The brochures provided important information to parents and prompted teachers to review their curriculum guides and work toward district consensus on learning outcomes. Within the Network, there are many success stories, and the Web site is one of several places for recognizing and publicizing achievement and hard work on partnerships.
Contact the Staff
This section provides biographical information about the director, assistant director, communications director, dissemination director, and network coordinator of the National Network of Partnership Schools. Partnership Schools staff will answer all questions related to school-family-community partnerships and program development. We encourage dialogue with Network members by listing our e-mail address, telephone number, and mailing address on this page and several others.
Links
The Web site includes a section of links to Web sites of other organizations that members may find useful as they develop their programs of partnership. The Internet can be overwhelming to users in search of specific material. For members of the Network and other visitors, we identify sites that provide content related specifically to school-family-community partnerships. Our policy is to link to sites that offer a reciprocal link to our Web site.
Future Plans
The Network's Web site is constantly "under construction," adding and expanding features regularly. We plan to update sections, such as "Frequently Asked Questions," on a regular basis so that members will continue to visit the site to gain new and useful information.
Other plans focus on increasing the interactive component of the Web site. We want to increase two-way communication between and among members and the Network's staff. For example, we plan to establish a bulletin board so that members may post messages to obtain or share information, questions, and solutions to challenges with other visitors to the site. The Partnership Schools staff will monitor the bulletin board and respond to messages when appropriate.
We are considering the design and use of a listserv so that the Center can send out general weekly/monthly e-mail to all interested members. The content of this e-mail may include a summary of the week's bulletin board postings, a listing of upcoming events, or other important information.
Another interactive feature under consideration is a quick survey of visitors, such as a question of the month that visitors may respond to with a click on possible answers. The Partnership Schools staff will tally responses weekly and post the results.
Conclusion
The Web site for the National Network of Partnership Schools was designed as a technological tool to help members develop effective programs of school-family-community partnerships that are tailored to the needs and interests of each school, district, or state department of education. Its design meets several key principles for the effective dissemination of information for staff development and for program development (Katz & Rothenberg, 1996). The eight "buttoned" sections of the Web site aim to provide: (1) good information, not just more information, that can be processed and applied in practice; (2) clear concepts in effective and easy-to-read formats; (3) an appropriate degree of repetition to reinforce main ideas and to ensure that key structures and processes for partnerships are established; (4) content that is updated periodically to enable new and advanced programs of partnership to make continuous progress; (5) opportunities for members of the Network to share ideas, practices, problems, and solutions; and (6) a way for the Network to recognize and disseminate promising practices and new research results.
Not all members of the Network have access to the Internet yet. All information on the Web site is provided to members of the Network in print form. Those who do have Internet access may use the Web site as an additional source of good information to help them with their work. Members report their use of the Web site and other Network services annually. We will be charting the number of visits to the site, whether members of the Network use the site to contact the staff and obtain information, and whether new members sign up using the forms provided.
As the Network staff learns more about the needs and concerns of members, changes will be made to the Web site to maintain its usefulness and accessibility. To achieve this objective, the Partnership Schools staff must meet one of the challenges to effective programs of partnership-two-way channels of communication. Future plans for the Network's Web site will meet this challenge. We not only want to post information, but we also want to enable members and other visitors to communicate with the Partnership Schools staff and with each other so that they reach their goal of developing programs of school, family, and community partnerships that help more students succeed.
Acknowledgments
We appreciate the expert technical assistance of Renee Kling, Jon Grant, and Steve Choi in developing the Web site of the National Network of Partnership Schools, and the contributions of Michael Berka to the Web site.
References
Booth, Alan, & Dunn, Judith F. (Eds.). (1996). Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Epstein, Joyce L. (1987). Toward a theory of family-school connections: Teacher practices and parent involvement. In Klaus Hurrelmann, Franz-Xaver Kaufmann, & Friedrich Losel(Eds.), Social intervention: Potential and constraints (pp. 121-136). New York: DeGruyter.
Epstein, Joyce L. (1996). Perspectives and previews on research and policy for school, family, and community partnerships. In Alan Booth & Judith F. Dunn (Eds.), Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes (pp. 209-246). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Epstein, Joyce L., Coates, Lucretia, Salinas, Karen Clark, Sanders, Mavis G., & Simon, Beth S. (1997, in press). School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook for action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Katz, Lilian G., & Rothenberg, Dianne. (1996). Issues in dissemination: An ERIC perspective. ERIC Review, 5(1-2), 2-9.
Ryan, Bruce A., Adams, Gerald R., Gullotta, Thomas P., Weissberg, Roger P., & Hampton, Robert L. (Eds.). (1995). The family-school connection: Theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Schneider, Barbara, & Coleman, James S. (Eds.). (1993). Parents, their children, and schools. Boulder, CO: Westview.
