History of middle schools
According to Manning (2000a), the first middle school was created in Bay City, Michigan, in 1950. The intent behind the creation of this school and middle schools in general was to better meet the developmental needs of young adolescents in a school setting separate from K-8 schools, K-5 elementary schools, and high schools. Junior high schools were the precursor to middle schools; the first three junior high schools were created in 1909 in Columbus, Ohio. Middle schools, like junior high schools, offer enriched academics for college-bound students and vocational programs for non-college-bound students. The middle school movement builds on the junior high school core curriculum, as well as the junior high school provision of guidance programs, exploratory education, and vocational and home arts. In the early years of the middle school movement, most middle schools, unlike junior high schools, did not engage in the high school practices of extracurricular sports and isolated subject matter orientation. Middle schools continue to try to meet the needs of young adolescents through such practices as smaller learning teams, advisory classes that help create a bond between each student and at least one teacher, and interdisciplinary teaching and learning (Manning, 2000a). These elements of model middle schools are outlined by the National Middle School Association in a position paper titled "This We Believe" (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 1995).
Demographics and statistics
According to the National Middle School Association (Miles & Valentine, 2001), in the year 2000, there were 8,371 middle schools in the United States with a grade 6-8 configuration, which is the most frequently occurring grade configuration for middle schools, compared to 1,662 in 1971 (an increase of over 400% over 30 years). Across all possible grade configurations, there were 14,107 middle level schools in the year 2000 vs. 10,445 in 1971 for an increase of 35%.
According to Alt and Choy (2000), in 1993-94 about 15% of the 80,000 schools in the United States were middle schools. Almost 7 million of the over 41 million children in public schools were in middle schools (17%). Research by Alt and Choy (2000) indicated that 79% of middle school teachers taught in departments as opposed to teaching in self-contained classrooms. Overall, 7-8% of middle school teachers lacked certification in the area they taught vs. 2-3% of secondary educators (in the core curriculum). Thirty-three percent of middle schools and high schools reported that they have great difficulty filling teaching vacancies, which is twice the percentage found in elementary schools. The authors state that the pool of applicants is smaller due to subject specialization requirements. Teachers were slightly more likely to leave middle school settings than high school settings, and slightly more likely to leave the field of education across two time comparisons (4% of middle school teachers in 1987-88 left in one year compared to 8% leaving in 1993-94, an increase not evident at the elementary or high school level). Teacher satisfaction appeared to be lower in middle schools and high schools as opposed to elementary settings. Middle school teachers identified physical student conflicts as more problematic in middle schools compared to elementary or high schools, although these physical conflicts were not widespread. Student disrespect ("disrespect" was not further defined in this report) toward teachers was twice as high in middle schools and high schools as it was in elementary settings. Alt and Choy (2000) concluded that middle schools rarely differ significantly from other schools. Although the differences tended to be small, Alt and Choy found a small but statistically greater amount of student disrespect, fewer teachers who were certified, and fewer teachers who remained at the same middle school after one year as compared to elementary or high schools.
Developmental needs of young adolescents
In an Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) position paper, Manning (2000b) provides a definition of child-centered middle schools. Manning states that the middle school organization contains grades 6-8 (and sometimes grade 5). Most importantly, the middle schools support the education and overall well-being of 10- to 15-year-olds by providing developmentally appropriate and responsive curriculum and instruction, guidance, and overall educational experiences in a violence-free environment. Manning also believes that middle schools should provide young adolescents with opportunities to participate in service learning and to learn values, citizenship, and social skills.
Reed and Rossi (2000) conducted survey research with 321 rural (n = 101), urban (n = 119), and suburban (n = 101) sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-graders in an attempt to identify their developmental needs and wishes. These researchers reported their results and organized them into three categories. The first category was the "search for personal identity," which included wishes such as wealth, fame, material goods, popularity, concern about conflicts in social relationships, wishing people would be nicer to each other, and better family relationships. The second category was "life in school," with high academic achievement being the most common wish. Students wished that they earned all A's. Students also expressed a desire to be a part of sports teams, and urban children generally wished for better resources during after-school time. The final category was related to "life and health" (not dying, staying healthy) and real-life societal and global issues such as world peace.
Reed and Rossi (2000) suggest that service learning is one way to integrate some of these early adolescent wishes into the curriculum. They also suggest that teachers create themes and integrated curriculum that emphasize conflict resolution, justice, identity, and violence prevention. They suggest that because many middle school students express concern about homelessness and violence, for example, conflict resolution training could be incorporated into service learning activities designed around service to homeless children and their families. Also advisor-advisee sessions (small groups of students meeting with one teacher throughout the year and discussing issues of personal concern, engaging in team-building activities, etc.) can provide a setting for implementing activities related to these concerns.
Based on survey research done with 1,480 primarily African American (67%), white families (21%), and multiracial (12%) students at the beginning of seventh grade and at the end of eighth grade, Roeser, Eccles, and Sameroff (2000) attempted to determine some of the psychological reasons why young adolescents experience academic success or problems during these years. Among other findings, the researchers concluded that whether adolescents engage or do not engage in classroom learning depends in some measure on whether they feel they can meet the academic challenges, see value and purpose in the activities, and feel safe and cared for by others in the setting. The researchers also question whether the strategy of emphasizing students' relative academic standing and promoting individual students as academic role models really motivates less successful students to learn. They stress the need for teachers to attempt to include students' voices in the learning process and give them choices and control over their learning. These researchers also suggest that teachers need to be open to students' interests and prior knowledge to better develop lessons that students can relate to meaningful life events, experiences, and questions that are of concern to early adolescents. Creating smaller learning environments (teams) is supported by these research results, as is rooting out silent or overt discrimination practices that may be disenfranchising certain groups of students (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000).
Finally, Chung, Elias, and Schneider (1998) used various surveys and measures and found that both boys and girls in their sample of 99 students entering a primarily blue collar, multi-ethnic middle school in New Jersey showed a significant increase in psychological distress after the transition into middle school. Boys also demonstrated decreased academic achievement relative to their elementary school achievement, while self-esteem did not appear to change. Girls showed more signs of psychological distress at the transition into middle school (as demonstrated by physical symptoms) than boys. The researchers conclude that school psychologists need to understand different ways that young adolescents adapt to the transition into middle school in order to better identify at-risk students and provide them with services to assist them during the transition.
Key elements of middle schools
The ERIC Digest Key Characteristics of Middle Level Schools by Lounsbury (1996) briefly lists a number of factors that represent important elements of schools that follow a middle school model. It is beyond the scope of this Web Guide to discuss all of these factors in detail, but the following areas will be discussed briefly: curriculum, parent involvement, and interdisciplinary teaming.
Curriculum
"Turning
Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century," a landmark
report from the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989)
that recognized the need to strengthen the academic core of middle
schools and establish caring, supportive environments that value
adolescents, stated that the goals of the middle school curriculum
are to help students improve written and oral communication skills,
develop problem-solving strategies, conduct research, increase critical
and creative thinking skills, understand principles of democracy
and economics, and enhance mathematical conceptual and computational
skills.
The Association for Early Childhood Education International's position paper on child-centered middle schools states the following about middle school curriculum:
While the necessity and importance of subject matter deserves consideration and the essential middle school concepts (e.g., adviser-advisee programs, exploratory programs, interdisciplinary teaming, flexible schedules and organizations, and positive learning environments) must be effectively implemented, the emphasis on subject matter and middle school concepts must reflect genuine concern for young adolescents and their unique developmental needs and interests. (Manning, 2000b, p. 155)
The goal is to ensure some degree of success for all students in all facets of the middle school program. Although Manning points out that middle school students know that academic achievement is the mainstay of their efforts, students should also know that teachers care about them as individuals and their overall welfare, regardless of culture and developmental rate. The curriculum should be unique and diverse, not just a little more difficult than elementary school or a little less difficult than high school. Although those "difficulty" factors need to be considered, the focus should remain on the unique needs of early adolescents (Manning, 2000b). The ACEI document further details other elements of importance to the concept of middle schools, including academic, personal, and social contexts and concerns; core curriculum; and guidance and counseling.
With regard to instructional practices and learning environments, ACEI stresses that there should be less emphasis on memorizing facts and more emphasis on critical thinking and learning skills. Textbooks should be selected with middle school students in mind, not younger or older children, with a limited use of worksheets. Middle schools should offer different types of learning, including discovery, inquiry, and cooperative learning. Finally, middle schools should value diversity, offer activities that enhance student's self-esteem, utilize heterogeneous grouping, integrate educational technology into learning activities, and generally promote a culture of achievement (Manning, 2000b).
One middle school curricular approach suggested by Arrington and Moore (2001) involves service learning. Service learning combines the power of serving others with meaningful learning tied to the school curriculum. Students are provided with structured opportunities to learn as they work on authentic community issues (e.g., assisting with the cleanup of a local creek or helping out at a local shelter for families who are homeless). Service learning activities help students stay connected with and make a difference in their communities and may serve to combat the sense of isolation and alienation that some young adolescents experience. The overall goals of service learning are to promote student participation in the community, increase students' problem-solving ability, and promote a sense of caring and civic responsibility. Service learning can create meaningful links for students between content, ideas, and information. For example, while preparing and serving meals at a soup kitchen, students can practice academic skills learned related to nutrition, family health, and budgeting.
Parent involvement
Brough and
Irvin (2001) state that there is a range of parental involvement
possibilities at the middle level. Parents may participate by supervising
their child's health and safety generally, establishing an environment
that supports school learning, being involved in school activities,
monitoring school work at home, taking a role in school governance,
and collaborating with other parents or school officials to advocate
for change in the community's school system.
Given the range of potential parent involvement activities, Brough and Irvin (2001) suggest that no one method will work for all parents and students, since parental involvement is also affected by family income level, ethnicity, culture, language, perceived parental roles, and self-efficacy. These researchers advise middle schools to do action research to determine what works best at the individual school level. Schools should continuously apprise parents of concrete ways that they can foster student academic improvement.
Epstein, Simo, and Salinas (1997) evaluated 16 classes in Baltimore, Maryland, that were taking part in the Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) Interactive Homework process. They found that students' writing scores, language art report cards, and attitudes improved when students involved parents in their homework beyond merely having them check that the homework was completed. This improvement occurred regardless of family background. The authors conclude that students, families, and schools need more than homework to help students meet their goals for learning and success (Epstein, Simon, & Salinas, 1997).
Parental involvement decreases in middle school as compared to elementary school (K-5) (Eccles & Harold, 1993). Brough and Irvin (2001) detail some barriers to parental involvement in middle school settings, such as the complexity of material compared to elementary school, the difficulty some parents (who have relatively less education/income) have relating to "more successful" teachers, the perception that there is a less concrete role for parents to play in middle school settings than there is in elementary schools, a lack of effort to involve parents by middle school staff, and the perception of parents that it is natural and desirable to allow children to distance themselves more and more from parents and be able to handle their own schoolwork beginning in the middle school years.
Beghetto (2001) talks about the contradiction of middle level parent involvement. Middle school students are mortified if parents show up at school, yet, given the connection between parental involvement and achievement, most students need parental support as much as ever. Beghetto suggests that parents need to find a way to stay involved while changing the pattern of involvement. He suggests that virtual communities offer a means of indirect involvement. Asynchronous discussions that occur in a virtual community offer a viable way for middle school parents to stay involved. These discussions require a coordinated effort by schools but do allow less passive parental involvement. Virtual discussions provide a forum for parent-teacher discussions of learning assignments and middle school child behaviors, at least for parents who have access to computers. Of course, virtual parent involvement cannot be a panacea—some issues require face-to-face meetings. Still, technology does offer one possible alternative to traditional parental involvement programs at the middle school level.
Interdisciplinary
teaming
Based on their
review of the literature and their own survey research, Valentine
and Whitaker (1997) state that more than 50% of middle schools in
the United States incorporate interdisciplinary teaming, an essential
element in the implementation of the middle school model. Research
by Flowers, Mertens, and Mulhall (1999) was based on self-studies
conducted by 155 middle schools in Michigan that provided quantitative
data to document and track school changes during middle school reform
efforts. The research indicated that interdisciplinary teaming improved
teachers' work climate and job satisfaction, lead to increases in
parental contact, and contributed to students' higher academic achievement.
Middle schools that used interdisciplinary teams had significantly
higher Michigan Educational Achievement Progress (MEAP) scores.
Those schools that utilized teaming and had the highest levels of
common planning time had the greatest two-year gains in achievement.
Schools that had been teaming for five or more years had the highest
MEAP scores, although even those that had been using interdisciplinary
teaming for 1-2 years showed noticeable gains (Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 1999).
A later study by these researchers (Mertens, Flowers, & Mulhall, 2001) also looked at similar self-study data, this time from nearly 140 Michigan middle schools. School-size issues as well as the extent that interdisciplinary teaming practices were employed were examined. The researchers concluded that schools using interdisciplinary teams experienced better student adjustment and behavior. They also found that schools that had more than 750 students but used teaming had consistently better student adjustment and behavior outcomes than larger schools that did not use interdisciplinary teaming. Schools with fewer than 750 students that were organized into a middle school grade configuration and that used teaming with high levels of common planning time implemented more practices typical of the middle school model, increased parent involvement and contact, and experienced a more positive school climate. In this research study, interdisciplinary teaming seemed to be the major factor, although generally smaller school size also improved scores in these areas as well (Mertens, Flowers, & Mulhall, 2001).
A descriptive report written by Thompson (2000) identified some issues related to implementing interdisciplinary teaming. Based on her review of the literature in this area and experience as a school administrator, she concluded that some teachers are fearful of losing control of the planning process for their classes and felt more comfortable in their own individual areas of expertise. Thompson points out that accountability demands also can affect teachers' decisions to implement interdisciplinary teaming; for example, some math teachers may experience a dissonance between wanting students to pass state-mandated tests and wanting them to be able to apply math skills in real-life situations. According to Thompson (2000), time constraints also may limit the effectiveness of interdisciplinary teaming, because teachers need time to discuss what would constitute an integrated curriculum in their school, how to best engage young adolescents in learning, and how to institutionalize this approach in the school's culture. Although "first-order" changes of schedules and routines may be made relatively easily, changing the culture of teacher-directed lessons that do not relate to students' lives and offer connections among disciplines is more difficult (Thompson, 2000). According to Erb (1997, p. 36) based on a review of the literature and experience as a researcher in the field of middle level education, "As long as teachers see themselves as individually responsible for teaching a pre-specified area of the curriculum, they will self-limit their ability to function on a team."
Rottier (2000) states that interdisciplinary planning time must be used efficiently and effectively. He advises that teachers in teams should adopt one or two challenging but measurable goals for the year such as decreasing "missing assignments by 10% each month" or increasing "student achievement on the persuasive element of the state English exam by 15%." He suggests that team members establish ground rules for meetings so that meetings do not become a "whine session" about students. Rottier further advises against devoting too many team meetings to parent meetings, suggesting that it is better to designate one team representative for these meetings. Among other suggestions, Rottier stresses that teachers find interdisciplinary ways to meet state standards using interdisciplinary teams to develop an integrated curriculum that can meet the needs of a wide range of students.
Teacher and administrator training
According to Manning (2000b), calls for unique middle school teacher training programs have gone largely unheeded. Relative to high school teachers, middle school teachers have lower prestige and experience greater challenges with the young adolescent age group. These factors create a need for more teachers at the middle level. Manning (2000b) believes that regardless of the shortage, middle level teachers should be trained in developmentally appropriate practice related to young adolescents and receive training related to middle school approaches.
McEwin, Dickinson, and Hamilton (2000) state in the introduction to their research that the call for specialized middle school teacher training is increasing, as is the consensus on what such training should entail. They suggest that training should focus on a comprehensive study of early adolescence and the philosophy and organization of middle level education. Middle level field experiences should be required, as should preparation in two or more teaching fields, such as mathematics and social science. In the survey conducted by McEwin, Dickinson, and Hamilton (2000) of the first 81 National Board Certified Generalist Teachers, 73 teachers, or 90%, responded. All respondents agreed that there are specialized ideas, principles, and understandings that middle school teachers should know. Particularly important teacher training areas were identified, including the developmental needs of young adolescents and an understanding of middle school curriculum with regard to interdisciplinary teaching, advisories, and other unique middle school practices. Respondents also stressed the need for hands-on experience and mentorship, as well as training in middle grades planning, teaching, and assessment strategies (McEwin, Dickinson, & Hamilton, 2000).
With regard to middle school administrator training, Brundrett (2002) observed that in Texas, 20-25% of middle school principals leave each year, and qualified replacements are hard to find. He created a six-day training program based on Turning Points 1989 (Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century) and 2000 (Educating Adolescents in the 21st Century) (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Jackson & Davis, 2000) and the National Middle School Association's document This We Believe (NMSA, 1995). Group work for administrators in the training program focused on creating a mock presentation to the school board on why teaming should be continued. Presentations were made and critiqued in days 3-4, then in days 5-6 after other assignments had been given, the participants gave 2-hour presentations, followed by a final discussion of middle school philosophy. Over 60% of graduates pursued middle school jobs, and 40% enrolled in follow-up training. Benefits of this program related to learning how to formulate and propose research-based solutions to actual problems. The networking of colleagues was helpful as well (Brundrett, 2002).
Middle school model and standards, high stakes testing, and accountability
Belair and Freeman (2000) believe that the recent focus on school accountability with an emphasis on meeting state standards has resulted in a reexamination of middle school philosophies and practice. Many are concerned that middle schools are more interested in social-emotional issues than in academic achievement and overall academic quality.
According to the National Middle School Association (1995), effective middle schools curriculum should be exploratory, integrative, and challenging. Belair and Freeman (2000) state that "early adolescents succeed more and learn best when they are required to be practitioners of knowledge rather than just receivers of knowledge" (p. 5). The challenge to those who believe in the middle school movement is to prove that academic rigor and responsiveness to the developmental needs of middle school students are not mutually exclusive.
Clark and Clark (2000) take the position that standards-based reform can be used to incorporate common tasks and support middle school restructuring. They suggest rethinking curriculum and instructional efforts to promote quality and equality for all young adolescents, rethinking the culture of the school, focusing on a rich learning environment for students, and creating a professionally supportive work environment for adults.
Clark and Clark (2000) wrote a position paper that attempts to identify some problems related to the standards movement. Among their concerns are:
- Competing visions of learning—varying definitions of what is meant by standards leave schools struggling to create a common vision of lasting and meaningful learning.
- Unclear language—standards are often jargon laden and complex.
- Overload—standards are sometimes so numerous and overwhelming that they are impossible to meet.
- Single measure of performance—in many cases, a single-time standardized achievement test determines if standards are met, because these are easy to use and inexpensive.
- Loss of school autonomy in curriculum—instructional decision making is compromised.
According to Clark and Clark (2000), assessment accomplishes its major purpose when middle level students know what they are supposed to be learning, have regular feedback on their accomplishments, and have the opportunity to reflect on their work. Parents should also know what their children can do academically and be familiar with the school's expectations so they can provide assistance and encouragement. Teachers and administrators need to acquire information that will help them know what students can do academically and what needs to be done to help students become more proficient at the academic tasks they experience at school.
Clark and Clark (2000) propose that, ideally, performance assessment would be used to assess the achievement of middle school students. Performance assessment replicates the authentic tasks that one might face in real life, assesses the student's knowledge, and guides rather than judges, allowing educators to find out whether students can find their own answers. Clark and Clark believe that this type of assessment serves the needs of the students and is well suited to documenting what students have done or learned over a period of time. Performance assessment as proposed by Clark and Clark (2000) asks students to prove that they have mastered objectives by having them judge the quality of their own work, monitor their own progress, and design their own remediation. Clark and Clark also point out that performance assessment allows teachers to watch learners pose questions, tackle and solve slightly ambiguous problems, build a body of evidence, plan and arrange arguments, and take purposeful action that confronts problems.
After reviewing the literature on high stakes testing, Clark and Clark (2000) conclude that one concern related to high stakes testing is that teachers may feel constrained to teach to the test, limiting teacher and parent autonomy in determining topics for learning and promoting the use of passive activities in the classroom. Clark and Clark (2000) argue for assessment policies that complement the curriculum and encourage expansion of the curriculum, involve teachers in the design and implementation of the assessment, and have the end result of providing students with a challenging, active learning environment.
In another position paper, Anfara and Waks (2001) discuss middle school curriculum philosophy and the contrast between academic rigor and developmentally appropriate practice for young adolescents. They state that middle school students need experiences that allow them to apply knowledge. They also suggest that information should be presented in a way that stresses the relationships between subjects. They believe middle school students need to see the applicability of knowledge to their own lives. Presenting knowledge for its own sake as a short-term goal does not work with middle school students because (1) this approach offers little context to students, (2) the material has little motivational power, and (3) difficult curricular content must be watered down to be comprehensible, robbing it further of its usefulness.
Anfara and Waks (2001) conclude that a subject-oriented middle school is not appropriate. In their view, emphasizing academic rigor makes middle schools into watered down junior high schools, which were not successful models in their view. As mentioned in the research section below, these researchers believe that middle school research that does not lead to convincing results with regard to academic achievement is flawed, perhaps because the actual middle school model is rarely implemented correctly. They argue that developmentally appropriate academics can be rigorous and measured without relying on achievement tests grounded in isolated academic disciplines. They want educators to stop the pendulum from swinging back to subject-focused middle schools and junior high schools from the current middle school interdisciplinary curricular approach.
Finally, in a paper that describes one school district's effort at middle school curriculum reform, Thompson (2000) concludes that the public and some educators misunderstand the standards movement. She feels that critics of the middle school philosophy conclude that because project-based integrative learning does not look like traditional (didactic) teaching, it must not be rigorous. In Thompson's view, critics of middle schools appear to want to see more lecture-based learning (e.g., would prefer to see students learning about buoyancy from a textbook and lecture-and-discussion format rather than through a demonstration done in a swimming pool or other body of water). An important current challenge for middle schools is to align curriculum in ways that are integrative, exploratory, and engaging, while simultaneously helping students score well on standardized tests (Thompson, 2000).
Research into middle school effectiveness
Erb (2000) reviews the middle school effectiveness research and argues that this research is contradictory because at times it is poorly designed, focusing on schools just beginning to change or on schools that have not really changed but call themselves middle schools. Erb cites the Turning Points document (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989), which states that the eight interdependent main components of middle schools must all be implemented: (1) empowering teachers and administrators, (2) involving families, (3) connecting schools with community, (4) improving academic performance through health and fitness, (5) teaching a core academic program, (6) staffing school with teachers trained in needs of young adolescents, (7) creating small learning communities, all of which lead to (8) ensuring success for all students. Erb also stresses the research of Warren and Muth (1995) that emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary teams having common planning time beyond existing individual teacher planning time to improve staff morale. This research also supports the idea of using mentoring, collaboration, and other strategies. Erb (2000) outlines what a more experienced team focuses on as opposed to what a less experienced team focuses on. He points out that small groups can more easily develop rules, rituals, and boundaries that lead students to have higher commitment to class time and bond with teachers. Middle school research on student achievement at middle schools that are not implementing interdisciplinary teaming properly or that do not contain all eight elements of middle schools should thus be viewed with caution (Erb, 2000).
Erb contends that middle schools improve academic achievement and cites several studies that show this finding, including studies that document higher math and reading achievement scores based on data from thousands of middle school students in several states (Lee & Smith, 1993; Felner, Jackson, Kasak, Mulhall, Brand, & Flowers, 1997; Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 1999). Erb concludes by saying that real middle school reform needs time, vision, and dedication to succeed.
Erb and Stevenson (1999) also comment on the "J curve" phenomenon, which theorizes that real changes may initially result in lowered achievement. Improvements caused by fundamental changes in physical, human, and social capital take time to assimilate. These researchers believe that real middle school reform changes the climate of the school, including how teachers relate to one another and to parents. An automatic "improvement" delay sets in as teachers change how they organize learning for students. The overall climate, interpersonal relationships, and instructional practices all must change before student outcomes can improve. When schools switch to the middle school model, the flow of school life gets disrupted, and change is implemented experimentally and at times incorrectly (e.g., common planning time may be wasted). After initial negative results academically, academic achievement and other outcomes begin to improve over time as the middle school model begins to be implemented correctly, with increased teacher, administrator, and parent cooperation (Erb & Stevenson, 1999).
Offenberg (2001) presents the results of a study designed to compare the effectiveness of Philadelphia's K-to-8 schools as compared to middle grades schools (N = 37-42 middle schools and 40-43 K-8 schools). He attempts to statistically control for factors related to social class and income (generally students in K-8 schools came from relatively advantaged socioeconomic backgrounds). Even controlling for these factors, Offenberg found that scores on standardized tests such as the eighth-grade SAT-9 were significantly better in K-8 schools than middle schools. Students from K-8 schools were 11% more likely to be accepted into specialized high schools after the effect of poverty was controlled statistically. He then examined various factors related to ninth-grade achievement, including attendance, grade point average, credits earned, and SAT-9 scores in reading, math, and science. Even after controlling statistically for poverty, Offenberg found that K-8 students had 1/10 of a letter grade positive difference as compared to middle school students, a statistically significant difference. No other measure led to a statistically significant difference, but the trends in all areas except attendance favored the alumni of K-8 schools.
Offenberg (2001) also examined the effects of school size, because the range of eighth-graders per school for K-8 schools was 23-147, while the range for middle schools was 389-1,482. Examining the achievement data in relation to school size did not lead to a statistically significant result, although again the achievement data favored the K-8 arrangements where students were served for more than twice as many years from smaller feeder neighborhoods. Offenberg speculates that this strategy allows schools better opportunities for teacher-teacher, teacher-student, and teacher-parent relations, and more supportive interpersonal environments.
Offenberg (2001) does point out that although the trend favored K-8 schools, a few middle schools did not fit the trend, suggesting that if the middle school model is implemented effectively, it is possible to provide an education that is comparable to that received in a smaller K-8 school. Thus Offenberg concludes that although this research suggests that it is generally easier to provide effective middle grades education in a K-8 setting, it is possible to provide the same quality in a middle grades school as well.
Backes, Ralston, and Ingwalson (1999) reported on the impact of middle school reform on student achievement. Their study was part of a systems change project in North Dakota that was implemented in six middle schools as part of the BRIDGES project. Elements of middle school reform were implemented in these schools, including advisor/advisee groups, team planning time, interdisciplinary teams, and other elements detailed in the Turning Points publication (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989). Using standardized test data from the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Fourth Edition (CTBS/4), researchers assessed sixth- through eighth-grade student achievement in 10 academic/cognitive areas in BRIDGES schools (N = 2,734 students) and compared them to comparable scores of students from non-BRIDGES middle schools in the state (N = 28,626).
Results were mixed, with greater improvements in BRIDGES schools in the areas of reading, vocabulary, language mechanics, study skills, science, and social science, but better achievement scores for the non-BRIDGES schools in the areas of language expression, math computation, and math concepts and applications. Grade level improvements for students scoring at the 25th percentile, the 50th percentile, and the 75th percentile were examined separately, and the data were also examined in aggregate form. The authors concluded that the middle school reforms as implemented in the BRIDGES program had a positive effect on achievement overall. Students in BRIDGES schools had an overall increase in grade equivalence scores of 2.12 as they progressed from sixth through eighth grades, as compared to an increase of 1.94 in the non-BRIDGES schools for that same time period. One troubling finding for middle school reformers was that students who scored at the 25th percentile level in BRIDGES schools did not make two years of grade level gain in their middle school years in any of the areas assessed. Thus the researchers suggest that whether middle level reform truly improves the learning of all students, including low achieving students, requires more study (Backes, Ralston, & Ingwalson, 1999).
Researchers in Georgia also examined how implementing middle grades reform affects student achievement in the state (Georgia State Department of Education, 1998). As measured by the average gains of reading and math scores on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, researchers found that students who attended schools that more fully implemented middle school reforms were more likely to be academically successful and were better supported as they made the transition into adolescence. The test results were especially significant at schools where teachers were judged to be the most effective at working in interdisciplinary teams. Other key elements appeared to be community involvement and support; achievement scores were higher at schools that were judged to have higher levels of community involvement in school governance. However, there was no statistically significant difference in the degree to which ninth-grade teachers reported that students were prepared for the required work, regardless of the extent that middle school reforms had been implemented at the students' middle schools. Another caution related to the findings was that the achievement results were especially marked in schools that had lower percentages of students receiving free or reduced price lunch (i.e., schools with higher number of students from non-poverty backgrounds). After the effects of socioeconomic status were controlled in the analysis, most measurable benefits of middle school reforms disappeared. Further research is needed to determine whether any benefits are a result of middle level reforms or simply reflective of schools with greater numbers of students from relatively advantaged backgrounds (Georgia State Department of Education, 1998).
The future of the middle school movement
As previously mentioned, the middle school reform movement has come under increasing attack from critics who feel that middle schools do not enable students to achieve academically. This criticism is especially true given today's standards and accountability environment, with some accusing middle schools of focusing on social and emotional development issues at the expense of offering challenging academics. A summary of some of the criticisms may be found online in an Education Week report by Bradley and Manzo (2000), part of a special report on the middle grades titled "Middle Grades: Feeling the Squeeze."
In an evaluative report, two education college faculty members suggest that middle school proponents have abandoned the original intent that the middle school movement be responsive to student and community needs (Williamson & Johnston, 1998). They express concern that middle school program characteristics have come to be of primary importance, while student success has become secondary. Sometimes middle school changes are not made or explained very well to teachers or the public. The authors feel that there is a need is to articulate real reasons for middle school programs when explaining programs as opposed to merely listing the standard characteristics. They suggest:
- Abandoning orthodoxy in favor of a renewed commitment to the education of middle school learner. For example, middle schools should consider that maybe teaming is not appropriate in all schools or debate what can replace advisories to create caring communities if advisories do not appear to be working. No single middle school model is perfect, and schools and communities should be willing to explore a range of program possibilities.
- Embracing choice. Offer various programs to increase the chances that a specific program will work for each student. One idea is to offer both a traditional junior high school academic program and a middle school concept team-based program in one school. Students and families could select one option that might best work for them and be allowed to switch to the other if necessary.
- Accepting accountability. Be prepared to answer the question "what will we accept as evidence that our program is successful?"
- Appreciating diversity.
- Discussing achievement. In today's standards-based testing accountability environment, middle schools need to be able to demonstrate high levels of academic success for all students.
- Modifying curriculum and instructional practices as needed. For example, one school district places students into intensive remedial reading when necessary before being moved them into regular classes with support and tutoring. Another school wanted all eighth-graders to study algebra, so they focused on pre-algebra in sixth grade and seventh grade to lead up to and develop skills. Although these ideas probably won't work for every student, middle schools should strive to find ways to teach all students by being willing to try various approaches.
- Building transition bridges with elementary and high school communities to promote understanding of middle school as well as to the community at large; encouraging parent involvement (Williamson & Johnston, 1998).
References
Alt, Martha Naomi, & Choy, Susan P. (2000). In the middle: Characteristics of public schools with a focus on middle schools. Education Statistics Quarterly, 2(3), 36-41. (ERIC Journal No. EJ622360) [Also available online at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000312.pdf]
Anfara, Vincent A., Jr., & Waks, Leonard. (2001). Resolving the tension between academic rigor and developmental appropriateness (Part II). Middle School Journal, 32(3), 25-30. (ERIC Journal No. EJ628437)
Arrington, Harriette J., & Moore, Sara Delano. (2001). Infusing service learning into instruction. Middle School Journal, 32(4), 55-60. (ERIC Journal No. EJ630010)
Backes, John; Ralston, Allen; & Ingwalson, Gail. (1999). Middle level reform: The impact on student achievement. Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly, 22(3), 43-57. (ERIC Journal No. EJ584445)
Beghetto, Ronald A. (2001). Virtually in the middle. Alternative avenues for parental involvement in middle level schools, Clearing House, 75(1), 21-25. (ERIC Journal No. EJ640640)
Belair, Jerome R., & Freeman, Paul. (2000). Providing a responsive and academically rigorous curriculum. Middle School Journal, 32(1), 5-6. (ERIC Journal No. EJ625375)
Bradley, Ann,
& Manzo, Kathleen Kennedy. (2000). The weak link. Education
Week, 20(5), 3-8.
Free registration required.[http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2000/10/04/05msmain.h20.html]
Brough, Judith Allen, & Irvin, Judith L. (2001). Parental involvement supports academic improvement among middle schoolers. Middle School Journal, 32(5), 56-61. (ERIC Journal No. EJ635759)
Brundrett, Robert C. (2002). Preparing a middle grades leader: A model program. Principal, 81(5), 55-56. (ERIC Journal No. EJ642996)
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989). Turning points: Preparing American youth for the 21st century. New York: Carnegie Corporation. (ERIC Document No. ED312322)
Chung, HyunHee; Elias, Maurice; & Schneider, Kenneth. (1998). Patterns of individual adjustment changes during middle school transition. Journal of School Psychology, 36(1), 83-101. (ERIC Journal No. EJ568356)
Clark, Donald C., & Clark, Sally N. (2000). Appropriate assessment strategies for young adolescents in an era of standards-based reform. Clearing House, 73(4), 201-204. (ERIC Journal No. EJ601019)
Eccles, Jacquelynne S.; & Harold, Rena D. (1993). Parent-school involvement during the early adolescent years. Teachers College Record, 94(3), 568-587 (ERIC Journal No. EJ463351)
Epstein, Joyce L.; Simon, Beth S.; & Salinas, Karen Clark. (1997). Involving parents in homework in the middle grades. Research Bulletins Online, 18. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Center for Evaluation, Development, and Research. Available: http://www.pdkintl.org/edres/resbul18.htm.[Editor's note (06-27-06): this url is no longer active.]
Erb, Thomas O. (1997). Thirty years of attempting to fathom teaming: Battling potholes and hairpin curves along the way. In Thomas S. Dickinson & Thomas O. Erb (Eds.). We gain more than we give: Teaming in middle schools. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association. (ERIC Document No. ED414084)
Erb, Thomas O. (2000). Do middle school reforms really make a difference. Clearing House, 73(4), 194-200. (ERIC Journal No. EJ601018)
Erb, Thomas O., & Stevenson, Chris. (1999). Middle school reforms throw a "J-curve": Don't strike out. From faith to facts: Turning points in action. Middle School Journal, 30(5), 45-47. (ERIC Journal No. EJ618628)
Felner, Robert D.; Jackson, A.; Kasak, D.; Mulhall, Peter F.; Brand, S.; & Flowers, Nancy. (1997). The impact of school reform for the middle years: A longitudinal study of a network engaged in turning points-based comprehensive school transformation. Phi Delta Kappan, 78(7), 528-532, 541-550. (ERIC Journal No. EJ540852)
Flowers, Nancy; Mertens, Steven B.; & Mulhall, Peter F. (1999). The impact of teaming: Five research-based outcomes. Middle School Journal, 31(2), 57-60. (ERIC Journal No. EJ620319)
Georgia State Department of Education. (1998). Statewide evaluation of Georgia's middle grades educational program: Phase I report. Atlanta: Author. (ERIC Document No. ED433364)
Jackson, Anthony W., & Davis, Gayle A. (2000). Turning points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York: Teachers College Press. (ERIC Document No. ED448910)
Lee, Valerie E., & Smith, Julia B. (1993). Effects of school restructuring on the achievement and engagement of middle-grade students. Sociology of Education, 66(3), 164-187. (ERIC Journal No. EJ482403)
Lounsbury, John. (1996). Key characteristics of middle level schools. ERIC Digest. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC Document No. ED401050) [Also available online at http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1996/louns96.html]
Manning, M. Lee. (2000a). A brief history of the middle school. Clearing House, 73(4), 192. (ERIC Journal No. EJ601016)
Manning, M. Lee. (2000b). Child-centered middle schools. A position paper: Association for Childhood Education International. Childhood Education, 76(3), 154-159. (ERIC Journal No. EJ602130)
McEwin, C. Kenneth; Dickinson, Thomas S.; & Hamilton, Hilda. (2000). National board certified teachers' views regarding specialized middle level teacher preparation. Clearing House, 73(4), 211-213. (ERIC Journal No. EJ601022)
Mertens, Steven B.; Flowers, Nancy; & Mulhall, Peter F. (2001). School size matters in interesting ways. Middle School Journal, 32(5), 51-55. (ERIC Journal No. EJ635758)
Miles, Mark, & Valentine, Jerry W. (2001). NMSA research summary #3: Numbers of middle schools and students [Online]. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association. Available: http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary3/tabid/254/Default.aspx.[Editor's note (06-27-06): this url is no longer active.]
National Middle School Association (NMSA). (1995). This we believe: Developmentally responsive middle level schools. A position paper. Columbus, OH: Author. (ERIC Document No. ED390546)
Offenberg, Robert M. (2001). The efficacy of Philadelphia's K-to-8 schools compared to middle grades schools. Middle School Journal, 32(4), 23-29. (ERIC Journal No. EJ630006)
Reed, Daisy F., & Rossi, John Allen. (2000). "My three wishes": Hopes, aspirations, and concerns of middle school students. Clearing House, 73(3), 141-144. (ERIC Journal No. EJ598911)
Roeser, Robert W.; Eccles, Jacquelynne S.; & Sameroff, Arnold J. (2000). School as a context of early adolescents' academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings. Elementary School Journal, 100(5), 443-471. (ERIC Journal No. EJ610301)
Rottier, Jerry. (2000). Teaming in the middle school: Improve it or lose it. Clearing House, 73(4), 214-216. (ERIC Journal No. EJ601023)
Thompson, Sue Carol. (2000). Overcoming obstacles to creating responsive curriculum. Middle School Journal, 32(1), 47-55. (ERIC Journal No. EJ625373)
Valentine, Jerry, & Whitaker, Todd. (1997). Organizational trends and practices in middle level schools. In Judith L. Irvin (Ed.), What current research says to the middle level practitioner (pp. 277-283). Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association. (ERIC Document No. ED427847)
Warren, Louis L., & Muth, K. Denise. (1995). The impact of common planning time on middle grades students and teachers. Research in Middle Level Education Quarterly, 18(3), 41-58. (ERIC Journal No. EJ524946)
Williamson, Ronald D., & Johnston, J. Howard. (1998). The fate of middle schooling. School Administrator, 55(7), 30-33. (ERIC Journal No. EJ570134)
Web Resources
Academic Achievement (see also: Middle School Reform and Critiques)
Academic Achievement (NMSA Research Summary) http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary12/tabid/266/Default.aspx[Editor's note (07-23-07): this url is no longer active.]
If an Adolescent Begins to Fail in School, What Can Parents and
Teachers Do? (ERIC Digest-1997)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1997/rober97b.html
National Science Education Standards for Grades 5-8
http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309053269&page=106
Guiding Middle Grades Curriculum Decisions for Language Arts, Mathematics and Science
http://www.middleweb.com/EDC/EDCmain.html
Early Adolescent Development
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development
http://www.ced.appstate.edu/departments/ci/programs/edmedia/medialit/carnegie.html
Center for Adolescent and Family Studies: Based at Indiana University's
School of Education
http://site.educ.indiana.edu/Default.aspx?alias=site.educ.indiana.edu/cafs
Center for Adolescent Studies: Adolescence Directory Online
http://education.indiana.edu/cas/adol/adol.htmlEditor's Note: this url is no longer active.
Center for Education of the Young Adolescent
http://www.uwplatt.edu/ceya/
Implications of Brain Research for Teaching Young Adolescents
http://www.nmsa.org/Publications/MiddleSchoolJournal/September2002/Article10/tabid/418/Default.aspx
Models of Adolescent Transition
http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/models.html
Motivation and Middle School Students (ERIC Digest-1998)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1998/anderm98.html
The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health
http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth/
The Nature and Needs of Early Adolescents
http://www.nelms.org/natureandneeds.html
Preparing Adolescents for a New Century (Abridged Version)
http://www.carnegie.org/sub/pubs/reports/
great_transitions/gr_intro.html
Reducing the Risk: Connections That Make a Difference in the Lives
of Youth
http://allaboutkids.umn.edu/cfahad/Reducing_the_risk.pdf
Reports of the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development
http://www.carnegie.org/sub/pubs/ccadpubs.htm
Young Adolescents' Developmental Characteristics
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/DevelopmentalCharacteristics/tabid/1414/Default.aspx
Turning Points
http://www.turningpts.org/
Turning Points 2000: Educating Adolescents in the 21st Century
[available from Teachers College Press]
http://store.tcpress.com/0807739960.shtml
Supporting Girls in Early Adolescence (ERIC Digest-1995)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1995/drgirl95.html
Grade Configuration, Grouping, Inclusion, Transitioning to High School
Grade Configuration in K-12 Schools
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/poptopics/gradeconfig.html
Grouping for Instruction in Middle Schools (ERIC Digest-1998)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1998/mills98.html
Helping Middle School Students Make the Transition into High School
(ERIC Digest-1999)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1999/mizell99.html
Heterogeneous Grouping (NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/HeterogeneousGrouping/tabid/1264/Default.aspx
Multi-age Grouping
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/MultiageGrouping/tabid/1282/Default.aspx
Restructuring for Inclusion: Changing Teaching Practices (Part
II)
http://www.nmsa.org/Publications/MiddleSchoolJournal/January2002/Article1/tabid/158/Default.aspx
What Is the Impact of Inclusion on Students and Staff in the Middle
School Setting? (NMSA Research Summary):
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary14/tabid/268/Default.aspx
What Types of Block Schedules Benefit Middle School Students (NMSA
Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary17/tabid/272/Default.aspx
Middle School Components and Characteristics
Advisory Programs (NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/AdvisoryPrograms/tabid/812/Default.aspx
Exploratory Curriculum in the Middle Schools (ERIC Digest-2000)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/2000/brazee00.html
Flexible Scheduling (NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/FlexibleScheduling/tabid/1140/Default.aspx
Focus on the Wonder Years: Challenges Facing the American Middle School (2004)
http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2004/RAND_MG139.pdf
Horizons Service Learning Project
http://www.aacc.nche.edu/Content/NavigationMenu/
ResourceCenter/Projects_Partnerships/Current/
HorizonsServiceLearningProject/
HorizonsServiceLearningProject.htm
Inclusion in Middle Schools (ERIC Digest-2001)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/2001/hines01.html
Integrated Curriculum in the Middle Schools (ERIC Digest-1992)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1992/beane92.html
Key Characteristics of Middle Level Schools (ERIC Digest-1996)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1996/louns96.html
Sports in Middle Grades (NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary10/tabid/264/Default.aspx
What Is the Difference between Middle School and Junior High? AskERIC
Response
http://www.eduref.org/cgi-bin/printresponses.cgi/
Virtual/Qa/archives/
Educational_Levels/K-12_Education/
Middle_Schools/middlevjunior.html
What Are Appropriate Assessment Practices for Middle School Students
(NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary16/tabid/271/Default.aspx
The Transition to Middle School (ERIC Digest-1998)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1998/schuma98.html
Student-Led Conferences at the Middle Level (ERIC Digest-1997)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1997/hackma97.html
Assembly on Literature for Adolescents
http://www.alan-ya.org/
Middle School Reform and Critiques
Are Middle Schools Getting a Bum Rap?
http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/profdev052.shtml
A Comprehensive School Reform Model for the Middle GradesEditor's Note: this url is no longer active. http://www.middlestart.org/about
Education's Weak Link: Student Performance in the Middle Grades:
http://www.sreb.org/programs/MiddleGrades/
publications/reports/98E02_weaklink.pdf
Exemplary Middle Schools (NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary4/tabid/256/Default.aspx
Making Middle Grades Work (series of documents/reports from the
Southern Regional Education Board)
http://www.sreb.org/programs/MiddleGrades/
publications/publicationsindex.asp
Middle Grades: Feeling the Squeeze (Education Week, October 2000)
Free registration required.http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2000/10/04/05ms_toc.h20.html?print=1
The Middle Grades: Putting All Students on Track for College
http://www.prel.org/products/pcn_/middle-grades.htm
Middle Grades Reform Lagging in Colorado
http://www.piton.org/content/Documents/term4.pdf
Middle Level Strategies for School Improvement:
http://www.k12.wa.us/research/pubdocs/
MiddleSchpdffiles/MSpgCover-6.pdf
Middle Start: A Comprehensive School Reform Model for the Middle
Grades
http://www.middlestart.org
Middleweb: Exploring Middle School Reform
http://www.middleweb.com
Powerful Ideas, Modest Gains: Five Years of Systemic Reform in
Philadelphia Middle Schools
http://www.cpre.org/images/stories/cpre_pdfs/children05.pdf
Turning Points: Transforming Middle Schools:
http://www.turningpts.org
Talent Development Middle Schools: Center for Social Organization
of Schools
http://web.jhu.edu/CSOS/tdmg/index.html
Parent Involvement
Getting Ready for College Early: A Handbook for Parents of Students
in the Middle and Junior High School Years
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/GettingReadyCollegeEarly/index.html
The Middle Grades: Helping Your Child through Early Adolescence
(U.S. Department of Education)
http://www.ed.gov/parents/academic/help/adolescence/index.html
Middle School Helps Parents with Resource Center
http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin147.shtml
Parent, Family, and Community Involvement in the Middle Grades
(ERIC Digest-1995)
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/1995/ruther95.html
Parent Involvement and Student Achievement at the Middle Level
(NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary18/tabid/274/Default.aspx
Parent Involvement at the Middle School Level
http://www.middleweb.com/ParntInvl.html
School and Family Involvement Surveys
http://www.ncrel.org/cscd/sfi/ [Editor's note (07-23-07): this url is no longer active.]
Supporting Your Adolescent: Tips for Parents
http://www.ncfy.com/publications/tips/index.htm
Student-Led Conferences Get Students and Parents Talking Academics
http://www.csos.jhu.edu/p2000/
Middle_and_High/type2school-reports/MHreport_no11.htm Editor's note: This url has changed: http://www.csos.jhu.edu/p2000/type2/issue11/ttype2k8.htm
State Policies
Education Commission of the States-Middle School
http://www.ecs.org/html/issue.asp?issueID=83
Education Commission of the States: Recent State Policies/Activities-Middle
School
http://www.ecs.org/ecs/ecscat.nsf/
WebTopicView?OpenView&RestrictToCategory=Middle+School
Statistics:
In the Middle: Characteristics of Public Schools with a Focus
on Middle Schools
http://www.nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000312.pdf
Numbers of Middle Schools and Students
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary3/tabid/254/Default.aspx [Editor's note(2006-04-28): this url is no longer active.]
Teacher Preparation
Education Commission of the States-Middle Grades Teachers: State
Requirements in Academic Fields for Middle Grades License, 2000
http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/26/33/2633.htm
Middle Level Licensure (NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary7/tabid/259/Default.aspx
Web Resources Helpful to Middle School Teachers
http://www.eastchester.k12.ny.us/
schools/ms/webresources/webresources.html
Teacher's Professional Development for Vital Middle Schools: What
Do We Know and Where Should We Go?
http://cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/docs/Middleschools.pdf
Ten Great Sites Every Middle School Educator Should Know!
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr174.shtml
Technology
Kidlink: Empowering Youth to Build Global Networks of Friends
http://www.kidlink.org/english/general/intro.html
Make It Happen! Integrating Inquiry and Technology into the Middle
School Curriculum
http://www2.edc.org/FSC/MIH/index.html
Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/
MIDDLE-L Electronic Discussion List
http://ecap.crc.uiuc.edu/listserv/middle-l.html
Middle School Chatboard at Teachers.net
http://teachers.net/mentors/middle_school/
MidLink Magazine (online magazine produced by middle school students)
http://longwood.cs.ucf.edu/~MidLink/
What Impact Does the Use of Technology Have on Middle Level Education,
Specifically Student Achievement? (NMSA Research Summary)
http://www.nmsa.org/Research/ResearchSummaries/Summary19/tabid/275/Default.aspx
Organizations
Center of Education
for the Young Adolescent
134 Doudna Hall
1 University Plaza
Platteville, WI 53818-3099
Telephone: 800-208-7041, 608-342-1276
Fax: 608-342-1889
Internet: http://www.uwplatt.edu/ceya/
European League for Middle Level Education
http://www.elmle.org
Middle Start
Academy for Educational Development
100 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10011
Telephone: 212-243-1110
Fax: 212-627-0407
Email: info@middlestart.org
The National
Forum to Accelerate Middle-Grades Reform
Education Development Center, Inc.
55 Chapel Street
Newton, MA 02458-1060
Email: mgforum@edc.org
Internet: http://www.mgforum.org/
National Middle
School Association
4151 Executive Parkway, Suite 300
Westerville, OH 43081
Telephone: 800-528-NMSA
Email: jcberck@aol.com
Internet: http://www.nmsa.org/
National Resource
Center for Middle Grades Education
University of South Florida
College of Education EDU 162
4202 E. Fowler Avenue
Tampa, FL 33620-5650
Internet: http://www.coedu.usf.edu/middlegrades/ [Editor's note (07-23-07): this url is no longer active.]
New England
League of Middle Schools
460 Boston Street, Suite 4
Topsfield, MA 01983-1223
Telephone: 978 887-6263
Fax: 978 887-6504
Email: nelms@nelms.org
Internet: http://www.nelms.org/
National Turning
Points Center
Center for Collaborative Education
1135 Tremont Street, Suite 490
Boston, MA 02120
Phone: 617-421-0134
Fax: 617-421-9016
info@turningpts.org
http://www.turningpts.org
Wisconsin Association
for Middle Level Education
5839 Woodland Drive
Waunakee, WI 53597
Internet: http://www.wamle.org/
ERIC Resources
How to Obtain ERIC Documents and Journal Articles:References identified with an ED (ERIC document), EJ (ERIC journal), or PS number are cited in the ERIC database. ERIC Documents (citations identified by an ED number) may be available full text from ERIC at no cost at the ERIC web site: http://www.eric.ed.gov/. Journal articles are available from the original journal, interlibrary loan services, or article reproduction clearinghouses.
ERIC Search using descriptor "Middle Schools" in combination with publication types "Reports - Evaluative" or "Reports - Research" or "Information Analysis" (Literature Reviews).
If you would
like to conduct your own free ERIC database searches via the Internet,
please go to http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_
nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERIC_Search.
Middle School Resources—-Research or Evaluative Reports, Reviews of Literature
ERIC database search through 06/2004
ED478771 EA032657
Title: Classroom Management.
Author(s) Dinsmore, Terri Sue
Pages: 30
Publication Date: June 20, 2003
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143); Test/questionnaires (160)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Michigan
Journal Announcement: RIEMAR2004
This paper is a report of a middle-school teacher's study of classroom management. The teacher/researcher was interested in how some of the techniques in the Kovalik Integrated Thematic Instruction model of training would influence the teacher/researcher's classroom management; the effects of direct instruction within a community circle; the effects of plants, lighting, and music on student behavior; and the significance of teacher preparation on classroom management. Data were collected from surveys of the teacher/researcher's students, classroom observations, and self-observations and journal entries. The study revealed that the amount of teacher preparation, presentation method used, and aspects of classroom environment all influenced classroom management to some degree. Teacher preparation was strongly linked to off-task student behavior. Students were more on-task when direct instruction was given in a community circle. The classroom environment, mainly soft lighting and music, created an inviting and comfortable atmosphere promoting on-task behavior. From the study the teacher/researcher created an action plan. Included in the paper are a literature review; a number of tables and graphs illustrating important points; and appendices that include the survey instrument, a seating chart for classroom observation, and a journal entry form. (WFA)
Descriptors: Class Organization; *Classroom Environment; *Classroom Observation Techniques; Classroom Research; *Classroom Techniques; Middle Schools; *Reflective Teaching; Self Evaluation (Individuals); Student Attitudes; Teacher Attitudes; Teacher Researchers; Teacher Student Relationship; Teaching Conditions; Teaching Methods
ED478737 EA032640
Title: The Development and Impact of Principal Leadership Self-Efficacy in Middle
Level Schools: Beginning an Inquiry.
Author(s) Lucas, Stephen Earl
Pages: 22
Publication Date: April 22, 2003
Notes: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association (Chicago, IL, April 21-25, 2003).
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143); Speeches/meeting papers (150)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Illinois
Journal Announcement: RIEMAR2004
This paper shares preliminary findings from a study of the development of leadership self-efficacy in the principals of a statewide middle-school network in the Midwest. The study was conceptualized to be carried out in three phases. As this paper was being written, the data collection for the first two phases had been completed, and preliminary analyses were being conducted. This paper is a work in progress that reflects some thinking out loud by the researcher as the study continues. The paper reports some of the preliminary findings and discusses how the findings may shape both the final phase of the study and future inquiry into the nature of principal leadership self-efficacy and the implementation of key reforms in middle-level schools. The study is examining the educational preparation, career path, and professional development of the principals; the leadership self-efficacy of the principals in relation to the major components of effective middle-level schools; the processes by which principals develop leadership self-efficacy specifically related to components of effective middle-level schools; and the process by which middle-school principal leadership self-efficacy engenders implementation of middle-level design components in the network's schools. (Author)
Descriptors: Administrator Education; Administrator Effectiveness; *Instructional Leadership; Junior High Schools; Leadership Responsibility; Leadership Training; *Management Development; *Middle Schools; *Principals; School Administration; *School Effectiveness; School Supervision; Secondary Education; *Self Efficacy; Self Motivation; Teacher Administrator Relationship
ED478484 TM035083
Title: Exploring Electronic Discussions with Middle School Students.
Author(s) Grisham, Dana L.; Wolsey, T. DeVere
Pages: 8
Publication Date: April 2003
Notes: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association (Chicago, IL, April 21-25, 2003.
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143); Speeches/meeting papers (150)
Geographic Source: U.S.; California
Journal Announcement: RIEMAR2004
This study explored the relationship between literacy learning and technology. A teacher-researcher and a university researcher collaborated on a yearlong study of three intact eighth-grade classes at a middle school in Southern California. Examined were the effect of electronic discussion groups on students' motivation to read and literacy responses and the effect of the ease of software use (First Class (copyright)) on student responses. Data suggest that students in the sample found responding on the computer motivating initially. As the online discussions began, there were many instances of emoticons and changes in font and color, but as the year went on students became more engaged in the discussions themselves, and novelty elements declines. Some students preferred the more traditional instructional sequences, but overall, it appeared that the asynchronous nature of online discussions prompted students to think more deeply about their responses to the literature and other students. Student responses reflected qualitative differences in favor of electronic writing, but did not demonstrate that electronic writing improved students' overall writing achievement. (Contains 11 references.) (SLD)
Descriptors: *Computer Assisted Instruction; *Discussion Groups; *Literacy; *Middle School Students; Middle Schools; *Student Motivation
ED478171 TM035066
Title: Sharing the Responsibility: A University-School District Investigation of Middle
School Transition.
Author(s) Deemer, Sandra; McCotter, Suzanne; Smith, Nancy
Pages: 13
Publication Date: April 2003
Notes: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association
(Chicago, IL, April 21-25, 2003).
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143); Speeches/meeting papers (150)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Pennsylvania
Journal Announcement: RIEFEB2004
A collaborative study was conducted to investigate students perceptions of their learning environments in elementary and middle school and to suggest interventions that would aid the school district in creating developmentally appropriate practices at the secondary level as the students experience the transition into middle school. Data were collected from student, teacher, and school leader interviews and through surveys and observations. This study focuses on the responses of elementary and middle school students to surveys and interviews about their perceptions and experiences in the middle school transition. Surveys were administered to 350 sixth graders and 368 seventh graders, and interviews were conducted with 10 seventh graders. Approximately 20% of the students reported difficulty with the transition to middle school. Four themes emerged from the responses. Students felt disconnected from school in grades 6 and 7. They perceived middle school work to be more difficult, and they often felt victimized in their school settings. The fourth theme was that parents did not seem to be heavily involved in schooling in these grades. Findings suggest that the problems may have more to do with struggles faced by students who do not have strong academic profiles than with just making the transition to middle school. An appendix contains the interview questions. (SLD)
Descriptors: Academic
Achievement; *College School Cooperation; Intervention; *Middle School Students; Middle
Schools; *Student Attitudes; Transitional Programs
Identifiers: *Transition Time
ED478009
TITLE: Academic Achievement in the Middle Grades: What Does Research Tell Us? A Review of the
Literature.
AUTHOR: Heller, Rafael; Calderon, Sarah; Medrich, Elliott
PUBLICATION_DATE: 2003
ABSTRACT: This literature review surveys research on academic achievement in the middle grades to
answer the following questions: What is the current state of middle-grades education? What led to the
reform of middle-grades education? What does the research say about educational practices that support
academic achievement in the middle grades? The review focuses on research associated with improving
student achievement and presents a list of best practices for improving achievement for all
middle-grades students. The literature showed that promoting achievement in the middle grades has
more in common with successful strategies applied at other grade levels than not. The researchers
call this the "middle grades paradox." Specifically, the review examines the following
topics: (1) the current state of middle-grades education; (2) middle-grades education reform; (3) what
the evidence says about middle-grades achievement, which includes discussions of curriculum, academic
climate, engagement, parental involvement, school size, classroom structure, teacher quality, and the
transition to high school; and (4) encouraging links among research, practice, and strategies.
(Contains 223 references.) (WFA)
MAJOR_DESCRIPTORS: Academic Achievement; Educational Improvement; MiddleSchool Students; MiddleSchools;
MINOR_DESCRIPTORS: Accountability; Classroom Environment; Curriculum; Educational Environment; MiddleSchool Teachers; Parent Participation; School Size; Standards; Teacher Effectiveness;
PUBLICATION_TYPE: 070
PAGE: 25
CLEARINGHOUSE_NO: EA032612
AVAILABILITY: Southern Regional Education Board, 592 10th St. N.W., Atlanta, GA 30318. Tel: 404-875-9211; Web site: http://www.sreb.org. For full text: http://www.sreb.org/programs/hstw/publications/pubs/02V47_Achievemen tReview.pdf.
EDRS_PRICE: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
INSTITUTION_NAME: IEE81377 _ Southern Regional Education Board, Atlanta, GA.
SPONSORING_AGENCY: BBB12599 _ DeWitt Wallace/Reader's Digest Fund, Pleasantville, NY.; BBB11688 _ Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, New York, NY.; EDD00001 _ Department of Education, Washington, DC.
LEVEL: 1
LANGUAGE: English
GEOGRAPHIC_SOURCE: U.S.; Georgia
NOTE: With Gene Bottoms, Sondra Cooney and Caro Feagin. Also supported by The Goldman Sachs Foundation, New York, NY.
ERIC_ISSUE: RIEFEB2004
EJ670169 PS534190
Title: Raising Middle School Math Standards without Raising Anxiety.
Author(s) Martinez, Joseph G. R.; Martinez, Nancy C.
Source: Middle School Journal, v34 n4 p27-35 Mar 2003
Publication Date: 2003
Notes: Theme Issue Topic: "Standards, Yes; Standardization,
No!"
ISSN: 0094-0771
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJNOV2003
Contends that in order to improve middle school mathematics achievement in the United States, "explain-practice-memorize" teaching methods need to give way to problem solving, solution inventing, and reflecting on work, while avoiding anxiety. Presents a series of solutions focusing on classroom strategies, lesson plans, resources for success, and activities for success. (SD)
Descriptors: *Academic Standards; Educational Improvement; Foreign
Countries; *Mathematics Achievement; *Mathematics Anxiety; *Mathematics
Curriculum; *Middle Schools; Teaching Methods
Identifiers: Japan; NCTM Principles and Standards for School Math;
*United States
EJ667841 EA540903
Title: Paving the Way for Change: Visionary Leadership in Action
at the Middle Level.
Author(s) Brown, Kathleen M.; Anfara, Vincent A., Jr.
Source: NASSP Bulletin, v87 n635 p16-34 Jun 2003
Publication Date: 2003
ISSN: 0192-6365
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJOCT2003
Case study explores visionary leadership in action by focusing on the strategies that some middle-school principals use before implementing schoolwide reforms. Finds that visionary leadership in action involves an initial exploration of possible change areas; discussions and education regarding the issues involved; and support, commitment, and ownership. (Contains 48 references.) (Authors/PKP)
Descriptors: *Educational Change; *Leadership Qualities; *Middle Schools; *Principals
ED472143
EA032211
Title: The Leadership Practices of Middle and High School Principals.
Author(s) Leech, Donald W.; Fulton, C. Ray
Pages: 15
Publication Date: August 07, 2002
Notes: Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council
of Professors of Educational Administration (56th, Burlington, VT,
August 5-10, 2002).
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143); Speeches/meeting papers
(150); Test/questionnaires (160)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Georgia
Journal Announcement: RIEAUG2003
As educators continue to restructure schools to better meet the needs of society, the principal's effective leadership practices become paramount. This report of a descriptive study of principals in a large urban school district examines the differences in middle-school and high-school teachers' perceptions of the leadership practices of educational leaders. The sample consists of 242 participants from 12 middle schools and 404 participants from 14 high schools. Each participant was administered Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory, which identified the teachers' perceptions of their principals' leadership practices in each of five dimensions: (1) challenging the process; (2) inspiring a shared vision; (3) enabling others to act; (4) modeling the way; and (5) encouraging the heart. Using a 95 percent level of confidence, no significant differences were identified between the means of the responses of middle-school and high-school teachers for any of the five practices: Middle-school and high-school teachers reported similar perceptions of their principals' leadership practices. Additional analysis indicates that both middle-school and high-school principals most often exhibited the practices of "enabling others to act" and "modeling the way" and least often demonstrated the behavior of "encouraging the heart." (Contains 1 table and 16 references.) (Author/WFA)
Descriptors:
Administrator Behavior; Administrator Effectiveness; Educational
Assessment; *High Schools; *Instructional Leadership; *Leadership
Effectiveness; *Leadership Styles; Middle School Teachers; *Middle
Schools; *Principals; School Effectiveness; School Supervision;
Secondary School Teachers; Teacher Attitudes
Identifiers: Leadership Practices Inventory
ED471557 EA032197
Title: The Effects of School Safety on the Learning Environment
of a Middle School.
Author(s) Smith, Ida M.
Pages: 22
Publication Date: June 12, 2002
Notes: Author is a science teacher in the Pemberton Township School
District.
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Pennsylvania
Journal Announcement: RIEAUG2003
This is a report of a study of safety issues at one urban middle school in New Jersey. The study had four objectives: (1) to identify the safety concerns of the staff and students of the school; (2) to determine effective strategies for improving safety; (3) to ascertain ways to implement strategies for improved safety; and (4) to determine ways to evaluate the strategies and decide their effectiveness. The study was based on the assumption that safety affects the learning environment. A purposive, nonrandom sampling of participants was used, and data were collected through a survey of 50 students, 25 staff members, and 3 administrators. The survey emphasized school safety with regard to hallways and common areas. Analysis shows that students, staff, and administrators agree on issues of safety concerns. The three groups of participants recommended improved hallway supervision and further study on bookbags. Strategies have been implemented to improve safety in the school. The study concludes, among other points, that safety issues in a school encompass the everyday activities that make up the learning environment, and that making schools safe is a joint responsibility that requires a broad-based team approach. (Contains 2 tables and 24 references.) (WFA)
Descriptors: *Educational Environment; Educational Facilities Improvement; *Middle Schools; School Accidents; *School Safety; School Security
EJ661673 RC515808
Title: Grade-Span Configuration.
Author(s) Coladarci, Theodore; Hancock, Julie
Source: Journal of Research in Rural Education, v17 n3 p189-92 Win
2002
Publication Date: 2002
Notes: Revised version of ERIC digest EDO-RC-02-2.
ISSN: 8756-0534
Language: English
Document Type: Information Analysis (070); Journal articles (080)
Journal Announcement: CIJJUN2003
A review of the limited evidence regarding grade-span configuration effects on academic achievement and other outcomes indicates that achievement in middle grades is higher in schools with an elementary-wide configuration than a middle-grades configuration. Continuity of experience may explain this finding, but more research is needed to disentangle grade span from its corollaries. (TD)
Descriptors:
*Academic Achievement; *Articulation (Education); Developmental
Continuity; *Early Adolescents; Educational Environment; Educational
Research; Elementary Secondary Education; *Middle Schools; *Research
Needs; Socioeconomic Influences
Identifiers: *Grade Span Configuration
EJ660354 UD524184
Title: Interpretations of the Meaning of Care: Creating Caring Relationships
in Urban Middle School Classrooms.
Author(s) Alder, Nora
Source: Urban Education, v37 n2 p241-66 Mar 2002
Publication Date: 2002
ISSN: 0042-0859
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJMAY2003
Examined how caring relationships were created and maintained between urban middle school students and their teachers. Data from interviews, focus groups, and observations revealed that urban students felt it was important for teachers to care. They considered their teachers caring when they knew their students well, provided personalized leadership, were academically helpful, and held high expectations for behavior and achievement. (SM)
Descriptors:
Middle School Students; Middle School Teachers; *Middle Schools;
Teacher Expectations of Students; *Teacher Student Relationship;
*Urban Schools
Identifiers: *Caring
EJ658534 UD524086
Title: Internal Teacher Turnover in Urban Middle School Reform.
Author(s) Ruby, Allen M.
Source: Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, v7 n4 p379-406
2002
Publication Date: 2002
ISSN: 1082-4669
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJAPR2003
Used data on science teachers at three urban middle schools undergoing whole-school reform to examine internal turnover among teachers who remained at their schools but changed subject assignments. Internal turnover levels were higher than external levels. Subject assignments made without regard to teachers' subject interests and stability of assignments were the primary causes of internal turnover. Internal turnover negatively impacted reform efforts. (SM)
Descriptors: *Educational Change; *Labor Turnover; *Middle Schools; Science Teachers; Secondary School Teachers; *Teacher Placement; *Urban Schools
EJ654336 PS533149
Title: A Middle School Endorsement Beats the Odds To Aid Urban Schools.
Author(s): Anfara, Vincent A., Jr.; Rosenblum, Sheila; Mahar, Robert
J.
Source: Middle School Journal, v33 n5 p5-13 May 2002
Publication Date: 2002
ISSN: 0094-0771
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Journal Announcement: CIJFEB2003
Explores the successes and setbacks in developing and implementing a middle grades teacher education program as part of the Excellence in Teaching Partnership (ETP) in Pennsylvania. Focuses on the preservice teachers involved over the last 3 years, the effectiveness of the ETP partnership, and the lesson learned from creating and implementing an add-on, middle level endorsement. (KB)
Descriptors: Certification; College School Cooperation; *Higher
Education; *Middle Schools; *Partnerships in Education; *Preservice
Teachers; Program Descriptions; Program Effectiveness; Program Evaluation;
Teacher Education Programs; *Urban Schools
Identifiers: Pennsylvania (Philadelphia)
EJ652576 PS533047
Title: Collaborative Decision Making: A Promising but Underused Strategy
for Middle School Improvement. Middle School Leadership.
Author(s): Clark, Sally N.; Clark, Donald C.
Source: Middle School Journal, v33 n4 p52-57 Mar 2002
Publication Date: 2002
ISSN: 0094-0771
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJJAN2003
Examines collaborative decision making in middle schools and methods to facilitate this underused strategy. Examines research on collaboration in the areas of school environment, classroom instruction, student learning, and decision making in schools. Factors of successful environments are examined including principal commitment, trust, focus on teaching and learning, teacher involvement, parent and community involvement, professional development, and time opportunities. (SD)
Descriptors: Administrator Attitudes; Classroom Environment; *Cooperation; Cooperative Learning; *Educational Improvement; Educational Quality; Middle School Teachers; *Middle Schools; *Participative Decision Making; *Partnerships in Education; Principals; School Administration; Teacher Attitudes; *Teacher Participation
EJ652569 PS533040
Title: Common Elements of High Performing, High Poverty Middle Schools.
Author(s): Trimble, Susan
Source: Middle School Journal, v33 n4 p7-16 Mar 2002
Publication Date: 2002
ISSN: 0094-0771
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJJAN2003
Examined over 3 years high-achieving high-poverty middle schools to determine school practices and policies associated with higher student achievement. Found that high-poverty middle schools that are high performing acquire grants and manage money well, use a variety of teaming configurations, and use data-based goals to improve student performance. (SD)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; *Economically Disadvantaged;
Educational Environment; Educational Strategies; *High Achievement;
*Institutional Characteristics; *Middle Schools; Poverty; School
Organization
Identifiers: Georgia; *School Profiles
EJ652049 EA539913
Title: Beyond Interdisciplinary Teaming: Findings and Implications
of the NASSP National Middle Level Study.
Author(s): Hackmann, Donald G.;