Matching teaching time to student learning preferences
A number of studies suggest that matching time of day to student preference can raise grades, improve test scores, improve behavior, and reduce truancy and tardiness. However, identifying a "best time of day" to teach is difficult because research on preferred time of day shows considerable variation in preference, no matter what the age group. Callan (1998) reported that, based on his research with high school students, less than 10% preferred the early morning, less than 10% preferred late morning, 15% preferred afternoon, 15% preferred evening, and 33% reported no time-of-day preference. The remaining students had two or even three time preferences. Dunn (1985) summarized her time-of-day preference work with elementary school students and reported that 20% preferred early morning, 33% preferred late morning, and 33% preferred afternoon. Comparing Dunn and Callan's statistics on the time-of-day preferences of elementary school students with preferences of high school students suggests that more than twice as many elementary school students as high school students prefer mornings. The data also suggest that throughout childhood and adolescence, children have a wide range of preferred times of day, and there is no one time of day that is good for everyone in any particular age group.
After determining their students' preferred learning styles across a variety of factors (e.g., time-of-day preferences, lighting, kinesthetic hands-on learning preferences), teachers in a North Carolina school scheduled more academically challenging subjects at times when the majority of students said they were most alert. There was a vast improvement in teacher reports of overall behavior of the 264 students involved in the study, and test scores gradually improved as well (Klavas, 1994).
Gadwa and Griggs (1985) studied learning style preferences of 103 high school dropouts and compared the results with time-of-day preferences of 213 randomly selected high school students from five area high schools and 214 alternative education students. These researchers reported that, among other learning style variables, high school dropouts in Washington preferred evening as their optimal time for learning and had difficulty learning in the morning.
Some research does suggest that among very young children, morning appears to be the best time of day to engage in learning activities. Staff surveyed by Wheeler (1995) at a child development center reported that children who attended preschool in the morning were better adjusted to school than children who attended in the afternoon. In another study, 154 preschool teachers in a survey conducted in Greece reported twice as many behavior problems in the afternoon than in the morning (Papatheodorou & Ramasut, 1993). It is possible that very young children do better in the morning because they need naps in the afternoon.
Matching teaching time to specific subjects
Overall, few studies have shown conclusively that, for example, elementary students progress in reading better in the morning or math better in the afternoon. Rather, studies appear to suggest that students do best with any academic subject at their individual preferred time of day. However, some research has been conducted that indicates that elementary students working below grade level do better on reading tasks in the afternoon. Barron, Henderson, and Spurgeon (1994) discovered that below-grade-level first- through fourth-graders at one elementary school (number of subjects not reported) significantly increased their reading achievement scores when instructed in the afternoon as compared to the control group that received morning instruction. Davis (1987) found similar results for 100 first-grade beginning readers (both low-ability and high-ability readers); greater gains were achieved when instruction occurred in the afternoon.
In one small study (n = 36), Ammons, Booker, and Killmon (1995) administered the Learning Style Inventory (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1990) to fifth-grade students to determine their preferred time of day for learning. The students were then split into two groups and given a science lesson in the morning or afternoon. When tested, students whose preferred time of day matched when they were taught and tested scored significantly higher than students whose time-of-day preference was not matched. Although the authors stress that individual differences preclude saying that all students of a certain grade/age learn best at a certain time, in this study, 24 of the students preferred an afternoon time, 2 a morning time, and 10 had no preference. The authors suggest that schools might consider scheduling more demanding courses in the students' preferred time of day. If this kind of scheduling is not possible for all students, some form of class rotation might be attempted so that all students could have a chance to learn at their preferred times.
In other research, Virostko (1983) conducted a study with 286 third- through sixth-graders at one elementary school where either reading or mathematics was offered at the student's preferred time of day for one year. Based on the New York State PEPS test, the students scored significantly higher in the subject that was held at their preferred time of day for learning. In the second year, when the course times were reversed, the results were reversed, and 98% scored higher in the subject that was held at the preferred time of day. Finally, Lynch (1981) studied 136 chronically truant 11th- and 12th-graders and discovered that their attendance and grades in an English class improved dramatically when the scheduled time for the class matched their preferred learning time.
School starting times
The topic of the best time to start school has recently received attention in the media and has been debated among school superintendents. The debate usually focuses specifically on high school starting times. Relatively recent findings about teenagers and sleep patterns and needs have spurred this debate (Lawton, 1999).
Circadian rhythms and school schedules
Research supports the idea that most people have a certain time of day when they are most alert and able to perform at their best. Humans have internal timing mechanisms, called circadian rhythms. Human body temperature gradually rises during the day and lowers at night (signaling a decline in alertness), usually reaching its lowest point around 5 a.m. Circadian rhythms can change throughout a person's lifetime. Typically, as children enter puberty, they experience a change that orients them toward a later bedtime and later rising; as people age, their rhythms shift back to an early-morning schedule. However, the ideal time of day can vary a great deal from person to person, and there is no one time of day that is ideal for everyone in a particular age group. For many people, the cycle of body temperature changes occurs in a different pattern, or peaks are reached at different times of day. School schedules inherently do not benefit "all students all the time" because not all students are at their peak during the morning hours when many educators schedule the most difficult subjects. The slump in peak temperature/alertness after lunch is also recognized by educators but seldom accommodated by school schedules (Biggers, 1980; Carskadon, 1999).
Sleep research and adolescents
According to research conducted by Mary A. Carskadon (Carskadon, 1990; Carskadon, Vieira, & Acebo, 1993; Carskadon, Wolfson, Tzischinsky, & Acebo, 1995), age does not seem to predetermine a person's best time of day. However, hormone and physiological changes that come with puberty do affect teenagers' sleep schedules so that they find it difficult to go to sleep early or get up early. Puberty causes shifts in teenagers' sleep cycles to favor a late night schedule, and teenagers who stay up late at night and are difficult to wake in the morning may not be "lazy" but may simply be following their natural cycle. Carskadon et al. studied sixth-grade students and found that, given a choice of their preferred bedtime, those who had started puberty preferred a much later bedtime than those who had not yet started puberty (although each group needed the same 9 hours total of sleep). The researchers were also surprised to discover that factors such as peer pressure or academic demands had very little to do with the shift in preferred bedtime (Carskadon, Vieira, & Acebo, 1993).
The changes associated with puberty unfortunately often coincide with the transition to middle school or high school. These schools often have earlier starting times than elementary schools. Later work by Carskadon and colleagues suggested that many teenagers in a high school with an early start time showed signs of sleep deprivation. The researchers followed 40 students who in 9th grade had a starting time of 8:25 and then moved on to a high school that had a starting time of 7:20 a.m. They went to bed at similar times (10:40 p.m. on average in 9th and 10th grades). The earlier start time was associated with significant sleep deprivation and daytime sleepiness. In fact, when given the opportunity as part of the experiment to try to fall asleep in the morning upon arrival at school, almost half of the 10th-graders went into deep REM sleep (sleep that usually only occurs in the middle of the night), and they fell asleep on average within 5 minutes. According to Carskadon, the students' brains--at 8:30 in the morning, during second or third period--were essentially still asleep. The researchers concluded that psychosocial influences and changes in bioregulatory systems controlling sleep limit teenagers' capacities to make adequate adjustments to an early school schedule (Carskadon, Wolfson, Acebo, Tzischinsky, & Seifer, 1998).
Wolfson and Carskadon (1998) found that sleeping and waking behaviors change significantly during the adolescent years. The objective of their study was to describe the relationship among adolescents' sleep/wake habits, characteristics of students (age, sex, school), and daytime functioning (mood, school performance, and behavior). A Sleep Habits Survey was administered in homeroom classes to 3,120 high school students at four public high schools from three Rhode Island school districts. Self-reported total sleep times (school and weekend nights) decreased by 40-50 minutes across ages 13-19. The sleep loss was due to increasingly later bedtimes, while rising times were more consistent across ages. Students who described themselves as struggling or failing in school (students receiving Cs, Ds/Fs) slept about 25 minutes less and went to bed an average of 40 minutes later on school nights than did students who received As and Bs. Students in the short-school-night, total-sleep group (i.e., students sleeping less than 6 hours 45 minutes) and/or large-weekend, bedtime-delay group (going to bed more than 120 minutes later on weekend nights as compared to school nights) reported increased daytime sleepiness, depressive mood, and sleep/wake behavior problems. In contrast, students sleeping longer than 8 hours 15 minutes with less than a 60-minute weekend delay did not report these problems (students in the "adequate sleep" group get more sleep and have more consistent bed times throughout the week).
Altogether, the researchers concluded that most of the adolescents surveyed did not get enough sleep and that their sleep loss interfered with daytime functioning.
Schools system response to sleep research: The Minnesota experience
Minnesota is responding to research about teenagers' sleep patterns: a number of school districts have changed their start times in response to recent sleep research, including Edina (a suburb of Minneapolis) and the Minneapolis Public Schools. A major research effort by the University of Minnesota's Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI) studied the implementation and ramifications of these systemwide school start-time changes (Wahlstrom, Wrobel, & Kubow, 1998; Wahlstrom, Davison, Choi, & Ross, 2001).
After learning that teenagers' sleep cycles typically range from 11:00 p.m. until 8:00 a.m and that as many as 20% of their students were falling asleep in their first two class periods (Wahlstrom, 2000), the Minneapolis Public School District (MPSD) changed the high school starting time from 7:20 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. CAREI researchers compared MPSD's new starting time with the 7:25 a.m. and 7:15 a.m. starting times of two other school districts that had not changed. Researchers found that the average bedtime for students in all three districts was roughly the same (around 11:20), but that students in the districts starting at 8:30 averaged an hour more of sleep than students in the earlier starting districts. Both students and teachers in the later starting district reported a decrease in daytime sleepiness, tardiness, skipping of first-hour classes, falling asleep in class, depression, and illness. Counselors reported that the number of students referred to them with stress-related problems was also significantly reduced. Teachers and administrators observed that students seemed more alert and there was generally a more positive and calmer atmosphere in the school. Teachers also reported that they also felt less sleep deprived and worn out by the end of the school year. Participation in after-school sports and related extracurricular activities did not appear to be affected, and student jobs did not have to be cut back in terms of number of hours worked (Wahlstrom, Wrobel, & Kubow, 1998; Wahlstrom, Davison, Choi, & Ross, 2001; Lawton, 1999; Wahlstrom, 2000).
Lawton (1999) discussed the results of the Minnesota study and reported drawbacks to the change in schedules, particularly with regard to the logistics of implementation. Bus and facilities scheduling had to be reworked. A later start time resulted in less time at the end of the day for extracurricular activities and jobs. However, Wahlstrom (1999) stressed that districts should not automatically assume that athletic coaches and transportation directors will be unwilling to discuss changes; the CAREI research showed that individuals in these positions are open to discussing ways of implementing these changes to benefit students. Wahlstrom, Davison, Choi, and Ross (2001) suggested that allowing lead time before making the changes appears to be beneficial (make plans known in the spring, not the summer, so that everyone has time to prepare), and that it is imperative to involve principals at elementary/middle schools as well if the changes will affect their schedules.
In reference to the Minnesota study, Wrobel (1999) reported that a few high school students preferred mornings and did not like the time change, although the overall student response was positive. Elementary school principals in general did not mind starting school earlier because they felt that the best time for their students to learn was in the morning. At the same time, these principals expressed concern about elementary students waiting for the bus in the dark each morning; or, alternatively, when elementary students went to school later, they expressed concern about excessive TV watching or the need for before-school child care. In general, the 9:40 starting times required of some elementary and middle schools because of transportation issues created problems with afternoon motivation/attention. Moving to an earlier starting time seemed to work better for students and teachers in elementary schools (especially an 8:40 a.m. start time) because the students were more energized throughout the day and alert, and school staff perceived that there were fewer behavior problems (Kubow, Wahlstrom, & Bemis, 1999). Earlier starting times for students with special needs might also be preferred because teachers reported that their students' behavior tends to deteriorate in the afternoon (Wrobel, 1999).
The Minneapolis experience also suggests that teachers who taught in the suburb were more positive about the change than teachers who taught in the city, with a clear majority approving the schedule change in Edina compared to about an even split in Minneapolis (Wahlstrom, 1999). Issues such as urban traffic and its effects on teachers' personal time affected these data. Similarly, the urban students tended to be generally dissatisfied with the change because of the impact on after-school activities (lack of athletic field lights, for example, led to sports practices being held in the early morning, negating the potential sleep gains; some students felt that there was less time to work). Overall, the suburban students in Edina, Minnesota, were positive about the change, feeling that they were more rested and alert without major impact on extracurricular activities. The change in time increased the number of students seeking academic assistance before and after school in the suburbs, but the change decreased such help seeking in the city. The researchers hypothesized from the data that this difference between the suburban and the urban district might be explained by easier transportation options for suburban students (having their own car or a parent to drive them, comparatively more congested traffic in the urban areas, etc.). Problems existed for both groups related to the last period of the day, when many students had to be excused for extracurricular activities (Kubow, Wahlstrom, & Bemis, 1999).
The impact of changing school starting times can be profound. Families may experience a wide range of positive and negative effects as a result of a change in school starting times (Wrobel, 1999). Involving parents early in the decision-making process may be an effective strategy. The strategy of alerting families early to school schedule modifications and letting them know the reasons for the change allows families to understand the research behind the change and begin to consider adjustments in family routine. The socioeconomic status of families has a significant impact on their ability to adjust and cope with the changes; more affluent suburban families are often better able to accommodate changes in routine than are inner-city, low-income families. Older siblings who in some families provided interim after-school care were at times unable to do so due to later closing times. Mismatches between family routines and new starting times can lead to frustration and poor adjustment if family child care obligations or other duties cause high school students to rise early to do chores that they had done in the afternoon when school closed earlier. In some cases, the net effect is no increase in the amount of sleep for these students (Wrobel, 1999).
Sleep issues were related to school grades in the Minneapolis district study (Wolfson & Carskadon, 1998). These researchers found a positive correlation between higher self-reported grades and more sleep. But a high-quality body of research that links school starting time/sleep issue to overall academic achievement as demonstrated by improved grades or improved performance on standardized tests does not yet exist. CAREI researchers note that analyzing grade data across schools/starting times is time-consuming and subject to confounding variables such as differences in course names, length of class periods, missing data, and student mobility. In the final CAREI report (Wahlstrom, Davison, Choi, & Ross, 2001), there was a slight, nonstatistically significant improvement in grades as a result of high schools switching to a later start time.
Despite the problems associated with changing schedules, the sleep research suggests that adolescents benefit from later starting times. Participants also state that districts should explore creating flexible scheduling so that some students begin the school day earlier than do others (to accommodate students with heavy extracurricular schedules as well as teacher preferences), and that any options that are implemented should be given a long evaluation period (Kubow, Wahlstrom, & Bemis, 1999; Wahlstrom, Wrobel, & Kubow, 1998; Wahlstrom, Davison, Choi, & Ross, 2001).
Conclusion
Given that the primary focus of education is to help each student maximize his or her potential, more research on the relationship between time of day and student learning is clearly needed. However, the research to date does point the way toward options that might be explored in these areas, including offering instruction in the evening, utilizing distance/online education for certain courses and students, attempting to match each individual student's time-of-day preferences with his or her more difficult subjects, or creating flexible scheduling arrangements.
References
Ammons, T. Lorraine; Booker, James L.; & Killmon, Courtney P. (1995). The effects of time of day on student attention and achievement. Unpublished manuscript. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, Curry School of Education. (ERIC Document No. ED384592)
Barron, Bennie G.; Henderson, Martha V.; & Spurgeon, Rebecca. (1994). Effects of time of day instruction on reading achievement of below grade readers. Reading Improvement, 31(1), 59-60. (ERIC Journal No. EJ483273)
Biggers, Julian L. (1980). Body rhythms, the school day, and academic achievement. Journal of Experimental Education, 49(1), 45-47. (ERIC Journal No. EJ239588)
Callan, Roger John. (1998). Giving students the (right) time of day. Educational Leadership, 55(4), 84-87. (ERIC Journal No. EJ556871)
Carskadon, Mary A. (1990). Patterns of sleep and sleepiness in adolescents. Pediatrician, 17(1), 5-12.
Carskadon, Mary A. (1999). When worlds collide: Adolescent need for sleep versus societal demands. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(5), 348-353. (ERIC Journal No. EJ579410)
Carskadon, Mary A.; Vieira, Cecilia; & Acebo, Christine. (1993). Association between puberty and delayed phase preference. Sleep, 16(3), 258-262.
Carskadon Mary A.; Wolfson Amy R.; Acebo, Christine; Tzischinsky, Orna; & Seifer, Ronald. (1998). Adolescent sleep patterns, circadian timing, and sleepiness at a transition to early school days. Sleep, 21(8), 871-881.
Carskadon, Mary A.; Wolfson, Amy R.; Tzischinsky, Orna; & Acebo, Christine. (1995). Early school schedules modify adolescent sleepiness. Sleep Research, 24, 92.
Davis, Zephaniah T. (1987). Effects of time-of-day of instruction on beginning reading achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 80(3), 138-140. (ERIC Journal No. EJ353277)
Dunn, Rita. (1985). It's time to handle instructional time correctly. Early Years K-8, 16, 47-49.
Dunn, Rita; Dunn, K.; & Price, G. E. (1990). Learning Style Inventory. Lawrence, KS: Price Systems, Inc.
Gadwa, Karol, & Griggs, Shirley A. (1985). The school dropout: Implications for counselors. School Counselor, 33(1), 9-17. (ERIC Journal No. EJ323245)
Klavas, Angela. (1994). In Greensboro, North Carolina, learning style program boosts achievement and test scores. Clearing House, 67(3), 149-151. (ERIC Journal No. EJ479200)
Kubow, Patricia K.; Wahlstrom, Kyla L.; & Bemis, Amy E. (1999). Starting time and school life: Reflections from educators and students. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(5), 366-371. (ERIC Journal No. EJ579413)
Lawton, Millicent. (1999). For whom the school bell tolls. School Administrator, 56(3), 6-12. (ERIC Journal No. EJ585528)
Lynch, Peter Kevin. (1981). An analysis of the relationships among academic achievement, attendance, and the learning style time references of eleventh and twelfth grade students identified as initial or chronic truants in a suburban New York school district. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42(05), 1880A.
Papatheodorou, Theodora, & Ramasut, Arlene. (1993, September).The effects of nursery school environment on teachers' perceptions of children's behavioural difficulties. Paper presented at the European Conference on the Quality of Early Childhood Education, Kriopigi, Greece. (ERIC Document No. ED362310)
Virostko, Joan. (1983). An analysis of the relationships among academic achievement in mathematics and reading, assigned instructional schedules, and the learning style time preferences of third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(06), 1683A.
Wahlstrom, Kyla L. (1999). The prickly politics of school starting times. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(5), 344-347. (ERIC Journal No. EJ579409)
Wahlstrom, Kyla L. (2000). School start time and teen sleep. High School Magazine, 7(9),40-41. (ERIC Journal No. EJ606494)
Wahlstrom,
Kyla L.; Davison, Mark L.; Choi, Jiyoung; & Ross, Jesse N. (2001).
School start time study. Executive summary. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota, Center for Applied Research and Educational
Improvement. Available:
http://cehd.umn.edu/carei/Reports/docs/SST-2001ES.pdf
Wahlstrom, K., Wrobel, G., & Kubow, P. (1998). Minneapolis public schools start time study. Executive summary. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement. Available: http://cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/docs/SST-1998ES.pdf
Wheeler, Gay. (1995). A study of half day vs. all day pre-kindergarten readiness. Unpublished manuscript. Huntsville, TX: Sam Houston State University. (ERIC Document No. ED383461)
Wolfson Amy R., & Carskadon, Mary A. (1998). Sleep schedules and daytime functioning in adolescents. Child Development, 69(4), 875-887. (ERIC Journal No. EJ572360)
Wrobel, Gordon D. (1999). The impact of school starting time on family life. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(5), 360-364. (ERIC Journal No. EJ579412)
Web Resources
It's About
Time (and Sleep): Making the Case for Starting School Later.
Administrators who have heeded the research and pushed back their
starting times report fewer discipline problems and less tardiness,
better attendance, and happier and more alert students. Included:
Tips for changing your high
school's start time.
http://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin314.shtml
School Start
Time - The Sleep for Science Research Lab, Department of Psychiatry
and Human Behavior, Brown Medical School
http://www.sleepforscience.org/resources/start.php
On My Own Time:
The Conflict Between Adolescent Sleep Needs and High School Start
Times
http://libraries.maine.edu/cre/38/No38.htm
Key to learning
ABCs: catching enough Zs?
http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0529/p02s01-ussc.html
UMaine study
examines sleep needs, school start time
http://cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/docs/SST-1998VI.pdf
Summary of
Learning Styles Research from Price Systems, Inc. (publishers of
the Learning Style Inventory by Dunn, Dunn, and Price).
http://www.learningstyle.com/research_main.html
Educational
Time Factors. School Improvement Research Series
http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/4/cu8.html
Later Start Times for High School Students
http://cehd.umn.edu/Pubs/ResearchWorks/sleep.html
Too Little,
Too Late
Free registration required.http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/1995/10/11/06sleep.h15.html?print=1
Needham Public Schools School Starting Time Report and Recommendation
(January 2003):
http://admin.needham.k12.ma.us/pdfs/sstcreport.pdf
Prisoners of
Time: Report of the National Commission on Time and Learning
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/PrisonersOfTime/
School Start
Time Study Reports
http://cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Reports/docs/SST-1998VI.pdf
Should Teens Sleep In? New Choices in School Starting Times:
http://library.adoption.com/Teenagers/Should-Teens-Sleep-In-New-Choices-in-School-Starting-Times/article/3340/2.html
Sleep, Safety,
Drugs, Teen Pregnancy, and Other Reasons to Change School Times
http://www.center4research.org/children3.html
In Some Districts the Bell Tolls Later for TeensFree registration required.http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/1998/03/11/26sleep.h17.html?print=1
Teens, Sleep, and School
http://library.adoption.com/Teenagers/Teens-Sleep-and-School/article/3355/1.html
What Happens
during the School Day?: Time Diaries from a National Sample of Elementary
School Teachers
http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=11018
Seasonal Rhythms:
Sleepy Teens
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/clocks/fall/teenagers.html
ERIC Resources
How to Obtain ERIC Documents and Journal Articles:
References identified with an ED (ERIC document), EJ (ERIC journal), or PS number are cited in the ERIC database. ERIC Documents (citations identified by an ED number) may be available full text from ERIC at no cost at the ERIC web site: http://www.eric.ed.gov/. Journal articles are available from the original journal, interlibrary loan services, or article reproduction clearinghouses.
This ERIC database search was conducted in part by creating a set using the term "Time Factors (Learning)" (as an ERIC Descriptor) OR Chronobiology OR Circadian Activity Rhythms OR Time of Day (as ERIC Identifiers) in combination with (AND) a set containing resources that have the keyword "time" in front of and within one word of "day" OR morning OR am OR afternoon OR pm OR the word "starting" in front of the word "time" OR the word "start" in front of the word "time" (all as keywords or keyword phrases.)
If you would
like to conduct your own free ERIC database searches via the Internet,
please go to http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_
nfpb=true&_pageLabel=ERIC_Search
What's the Best Time of Day for Student Learning?
Search of the ERIC Database through 6/2004
ED468560 PS030679
Title: Adolescent Sleep Patterns: Biological, Social, and Psychological
Influences.
Author(s) Carskadon, Mary A., Ed.
Pages: 297
Publication Date: 2002
ISBN: 0-521-64291-4
Available from: Document Not Available from EDRS.
Availability: Customer Service Department, Cambridge University
Press, 110 Midland Avenue, Port Chester, NY 10573 ($60). Tel: 800-872-7423
(Toll Free); Fax: 914-937-4712; Web site: http://www.cambridge.org.
Language: English
Document Type: Book (010); Collected works--General (020)
Geographic Source: United Kingdom; England
Journal Announcement: RIEAPR2003
Noting that healthy, adequate sleep fosters longevity and the optimal use of waking hours, and that adolescents, although rarely included in previous studies of sleep, are among the most sleep-deprived populations, this book explores the genesis and development of sleep patterns during adolescence, including biological and cultural factors that influence sleep patterns, risks associated with sleep deprivation, and effects of environmental factors such as work and school schedules. The chapters are: (1) "Sleep and Adolescence: A Social Psychologist's Perspective" (Sanford M. Dornbusch); (2) "Factors Influencing Sleep Patterns of Adolescents" (Mary A. Carskadon); (3) "Endocrine Changes Associated with Puberty and Adolescence" (Gary S. Richardson and Barbara A. Tate); (4) "Maturational Changes in Sleep-Wake Timing: Longitudinal Studies of the Circadian Activity Rhythm of a Diurnal Rodent" (Barbara A. Tate, Gary S. Richardson, and Mary A. Carskadon); (5) "Nutrition and Circadian Activity Offset in Adolescent Rhesus Monkeys" (Mari S. Golub, Peter T. Takeuchi, Tana Hoban-Higgins); (6) "Toward a Comparative Developmental Ecology of Human Sleep" (Carol M. Worthman and Melissa K. Melby); (7) "Sleep Patterns of High School Students Living in Sao Paulo, Brazil" (Miriam Andrade and L. Menna-Barreto); (8) "Sleep Patterns and Daytime Function in Adolescence: An Epidemiological Survey of an Italian High School Student Sample" (Flavia Giannotti and Flavia Cortesi); (9) "Risks of Driving While Sleepy in Adolescents and Young Adults" (Mary A. Carskadon); (10) "What Can the Study of Work Scheduling Tell Us about Adolescent Sleep?" (Roger H. Rosa); (11) "Accommodating the Sleep Patterns of Adolescents within Current Educational Structures: An Uncharted Path" (Kyla L. Wahlstrom); (12) "Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice: What Will Adolescents Sleep-Wake Patterns Look Like in the 21st Century?" (Amy R. Wolfson); (13) "Influence of Irregular Sleep Patterns on Waking Behavior" (Christine Acebo and Mary A. Carskadon); (14) "Stress and Sleep in Adolescence: A Clinical-Developmental Perspective" (Avi Sadeh and Reut Gruber); (15) "The Search for Vulnerability Signatures for Depression in High-Risk Adolescents: Mechanisms and Significance" (James T. McCracken); and (16) "The Regulation of Sleep-Arousal, Affect, and Attention in Adolescence: Some Questions and Speculations" (Ronald E. Dahl). Each chapter contains references. (KB)
Descriptors:
*Adolescent Attitudes; *Adolescent Behavior; *Adolescent Development;
*Adolescents; At Risk Persons; Attention; Biological Influences;
*Child Health; Childhood Needs; Depression (Psychology); Individual
Development; Nutrition; Psychological Patterns; Puberty; School
Schedules; Secondary Education; *Sleep; Social Influences; Stress
Variables; Young Adults
Identifiers: Driving; *Sleep Deprivation; Sleep Disorders
EJ626304 EA538328
Title: Just a Matter of Time.
Author(s) Smith, Frank
Source: Phi Delta Kappan, v82 n8 p572-76 Apr 2001
Publication Date: 2001
ISSN: 0031-7217
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Journal Announcement: CIJNOV2001
Struggling students are often victimized by time constraints--arbitrarily imposed timetables for mastering material and meeting standards. People learn best from experience, not by information acquisition, skill development, rote memorization, or assessment. Reading, writing, arithmetic, scientific understanding, and civics require student participation in relaxed settings. (MLH)
Descriptors: *Academic Failure; *Change Strategies; Classroom Environment;
Competition; Elementary Secondary Education; *Experiential Learning;
Grouping (Instructional Purposes); Individualized Instruction; Labeling
(of Persons); *Learning Problems; Rote Learning; School Schedules;
Skill Development; Student Experience; *Student Participation; Teacher
Attitudes; Testing Problems; *Time Factors (Learning); Underachievement
Identifiers: *Knowledge Development
ED461913 EA031460
Title: Time and Learning: Scheduling for Success. Hot Topics Series.
Author(s) Kennedy, Robert L., Ed.; Witcher, Ann E., Ed.
Author Affiliation: Phi Delta Kappa, Bloomington, IN. Center on Evaluation,
Development, and Research.(BBB24992)
Pages: 264
Publication Date: December 1998
Available from: Document Not Available from EDRS.
Availability: Phi Delta Kappa International, P.O. Box 789, Bloomington,
IN 47402-
0789 (Product Code: HTTLSS, $30; members $25). Tel: 800-766-1156 (Toll
Free); Fax:
812-339-0018.
Language: English
Document Type: Book (010); Information Analysis (070)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Indiana
Journal Announcement: RIEAUG2002
This book provides information for educators considering ways to make the best use of time available for learning. Twenty-one articles are divided into 5 chapters. Chapter 1: "How Can We Make the Most of the School Day?" includes an overview and 6 articles: (1) "Block Scheduling" (Karen Irmsher); (2)"The Hybrid Schedule: Scheduling to the Curriculum" (Gerald L. Boarman and Barbara S. Kirkpatrick); (3) "Improving School Climate: Alternating-Day Block Schedule" (Donald G. Hackmann); (4) "Parallel Block Scheduling: Accommodating Students' Diverse Needs in Elementary Schools" (Martha E. Snell, Dianne Koontz Lowman, and Robert Lynn Canady); (5) "A Colorado School's Unrocky Road to Trimesters" (Tom Stumpf); and (6) "Designing Classroom Spaces: Making the Most of Time" (Deborah W. Tegano et al.). Chapter 2: "When Will the School Day Begin and End?" includes an overview and 4 articles: (7) "Killing Time" (Kathleen Kennedy Manzo); (8) "Extending School Hours: A Capital Idea" (John Hodge Jones); (9) "The Effects of Full-Day Kindergarten on Student Achievement and Affect" (David Hough and Suzanne Bryde); and (10) "Too Little, Too Late" (Millicent Lawton). Chapter 3: "How Long Should the School Week Be?" is followed by an overview and 4 articles: (11) "Evaluation of the Four-Day School Week in Idaho Suburban Schools" (Richard L. Sagness and Stephanie A. Salzman); (12) "Perspectives: Implementing the Modified Four-Day School Week" (C. Del Litke); (13) "A Matter of Time: Schools Try Four-Day Weeks" (Robert C. Johnston); and (14) "Saturday School" (Saturday School Associates, Inc.). Chapter 4: "Can the Length or Configuration of the School Year Affect Learning?" includes an overview and 4 articles: (15) "Year- Round Schools: Matter of Time? Cost-Saving Opportunities and Pitfalls" (Jared E. Hazleton); (16) "Year Round Education: Is It Worth the Hassle" (Carolyn M. Shields); (17) "Review of Research on Student Learning in Year-Round Education" (Carolyn Calvin Kneese); and (18) "Quality Schools and the Myth of the Nine-Month School Year" (Larry L. Dlugosh). Chapter 5: "Can Looping Increase Time for Learning?" is followed by an overview and 3 articles: (19) "Looping Catches on as a Way to Build Strong Ties" (Linda Jacobson); (20) "Multi-Year Instruction: Establishing Teacher-Student Relationships" (Robert D. Lincoln); (21) "Looping: Adding Time, Strengthening Relationships" (Daniel L. Burke). (Contains 109 references.) (RKJ)
Descriptors: Alternate Day Schedules; *Block Scheduling; Elementary Secondary Education; *Extended School Year; *Flexible Working Hours; *School Schedules; *Time Factors (Learning)
EJ642268 TM524002
Title: Attention, Scholastic Achievement and Timing of Lessons.
Author(s) Klein, Joseph
Source: Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, v45 n3 p301-09
Sep 2001
Publication Date: 2001
ISSN: 0031-3831
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJJUL2002
Studied the time of day of optimal attention for 204 5th graders and 202 10th graders who varied in their aptitude for mathematics. Attention levels of fifth graders were especially high in the afternoon, but 10th graders reported increased concentration in the morning hours. Among 10th graders, there was significant interaction between mathematics achievement and attention levels at different times of day. (SLD)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; *Attention; *Elementary School
Students; Foreign Countries; *High School Students; High Schools;
Intermediate Grades; *Mathematics; *Scheduling; *Time Factors (Learning)
Identifiers: Israel
ED446816 PS028871
Title: Sleep Needs, Patterns, and Difficulties of Adolescents: Summary
of a Workshop. Forum on Adolescence (Washington, DC, September 22,
1999).
Author(s): Graham, Mary G., Ed.
Author Affiliation: Institute of Medicine (NAS), Washington, DC.(BBB11570);
National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council, Washington,
DC. Board on Children, Youth, and Families.(BBB34207)
Pages: 61
Publication Date: 2000
Sponsoring Agency: National Inst. of Child Health and Human Development
(NIH), Bethesda, MD. (BBB00456)@
Carnegie Corp. of New York, NY. (QPX12280)
Contract No: 5294-1582925-003
ISBN: 0-309-07177-1
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Availability: National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue,
N.W., Lock Box 285, Washington, DC 20055. Tel: 800-624-6242 (Toll
Free); Tel: 202-334-3313. For full text: http://www.nap.edu.
Language: English
Document Type: Collected works--Proceedings (021)
Geographic Source: U.S.; District of Columbia
This report summarizes the presentations and discussion at a workshop on adolescent sleep. The workshop was organized by the Board on Children, Youth, and Families and the Forum on Adolescence of the National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. The workshop brought together policy makers, researchers, and practitioners to examine research on adolescence and sleep, focusing on adolescents' sleep needs, typical sleep patterns, influences on sleep problems and disturbances, and the consequences of insufficient sleep. The topics covered are: (1) adolescent development and sleep; (2) adolescent sleep patterns and daytime sleepiness; (3) consequences of insufficient sleep; (4) identifying and intervening in clinical sleep problems; (5) changing school starting times; (6) educating the public about adolescent sleep needs; (7) next steps, including increasing public awareness about sleep needs, documenting the sleep debt in high school students, and designing appropriate interventions. The workshop agenda and a list of participants are appended. (Contains 37 references.) (KB)
Descriptors:
*Adolescent Development; *Adolescents; Attention; *Child Health;
Childhood Needs; Comparative Analysis; Emotional Response; Employment;
*Fatigue (Biology); Learning; Performance Factors; Psychological
Patterns; *Sleep; Time Factors (Learning)
Identifiers: Beginning of School Day; Driving; Public Awareness;
*Sleep Deprivation; *Sleep Disorders
EJ606494 EA537264
Title: School Start Time and Teen Sleep.
Author(s): Wahlstrom, Kyla L.
Source: High School Magazine, v7 n9 p40-41 May 2000
Publication Date: 2000
ISSN: 1070-9533
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Sleep studies have shown that teenagers' internal clocks are incompatible with most high schools' early hours. Research in two Minnesota districts indicates that later school starting times can benefit teens and everyone dealing with them. Student participation in sports and other after-school activities remained high. (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Adolescents; Athletics; *Educational Benefits; Fatigue (Biology);
High Schools; *School Schedules; *Sleep; *Student Participation
Identifiers: *Beginning of School Day; *Minnesota
ED451901 PS029345
Title: Adolescent Sleep Needs and School Starting Times.
Author(s): Wahlstrom, Kyla L., Ed.
Author Affiliation: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, Bloomington,
IN.(BBB06282)
Pages: 85
Publication Date: 1999
ISBN: 0-87367-817-6
Available from: Document Not Available from EDRS.
Availability: Phi Delta Kappa International, P.O. Box 789, Bloomington,
IN 47402-0789 (members, $7.50; nonmembers, $10). Tel: 800-766-1156
(Toll Free); Fax: 812-339-0018.
Language: English
Document Type: Information Analysis (070); Opinion papers (120)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Indiana
A key task for schools is to ensure that the conditions in which learning is to take place address the biological needs of the learners. This book examines sleep needs of adolescents and discusses the implications of these needs for school starting times. This book is a collection of five articles that appeared in a special section of the Phi Delta Kappan in January 1999. The chapters are: (1) "The Prickly Politics of School Starting Times" (Kyla L. Wahlstrom); (2) "When Worlds Collide: Adolescent Need for Sleep versus Societal Demands" (Mary A. Carskadon); (3) "The Consequences of Insufficient Sleep for Adolescents: Links between Sleep and Emotional Regulation" (Ronald E. Dahl); (4) "The Impact of School Starting Time on Family Life" (Gordon D. Wrobel); and (5) "Starting Time and School Life: Reflections from Educators and Students" (Patricia K. Kubow, Kyla L. Wahlstrom, and Amy E. Bemis). (KB)
Descriptors:
*Adolescents; Biological Influences; Educational Administration;
Family Life; Family School Relationship; Physical Development; Puberty;
*Scheduling; *School Schedules; *Secondary Education; *Sleep; *Student
Needs; Time Factors (Learning)
Identifiers: Sleep Deprivation
EJ601207 EA536846
Title: Sleep Tight.
Author(s): Black, Susan
Source: American School Board Journal, v187 n3 p42-44 Mar 2000
Publication Date: 2000
ISSN: 0003-0953
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
At the same time their biological systems program them for later sleep and waking times, adolescents' schedules and lifestyles keep them from getting a healthy amount of sleep. Although a few schools have altered their schedules, most are confounded by costs and contractual complications. Minnesota schools are leaders. (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Academic Achievement; *Adolescents; *School Schedules; Secondary
Education; *Sleep; *Social Development; *Student Behavior
Identifiers: *Circadian Activity Rhythms; Minnesota
EJ579413 EA535456
Title: Starting Time and School Life: Reflections from Educators
and Students.
Author(s): Kubow, Particia K; Wahlstrom, Kyla L.; Bemis, Amy E.
Source: Phi Delta Kappan, v80 n5 p366-71 Jan 1999
Publication Date: 1999
ISSN: 0031-7217
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Using teacher surveys and focus groups, a University of Minnesota study examined the effects of changing school starting times on school operations at all levels and on the community. The least desirable start time was 9:40 a.m. at middle schools. Later schedules benefited high school students. No one schedule can accommodate everyone. (MLH)
Descriptors:
Adolescents; *Educational Benefits; Elementary Secondary Education;
*Flexible Scheduling; Focus Groups; *School Community Relationship;
*School Schedules; Sleep; *Student Attitudes; *Teacher Attitudes;
Teacher Surveys
Identifiers: Minnesota (Minneapolis); *University of Minnesota
EJ579412 EA535455
Title: The Impact of School Starting Time on Family Life.
Author(s): Wrobel, Gordon D.
Source: Phi Delta Kappan, v80 n5 p360-64 Jan 1999
Publication Date: 1999
ISSN: 0031-7217
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
A Minnesota study showed that changing school starting times to accommodate adolescent sleep patterns profoundly affected many families. Implementation processes substantially influenced how families received changes. Policy makers should inform and involve all stakeholders, allow ample time, provide research-based justifications, support families' decision process, and provide adequate followup. (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Adolescents; Community Involvement; Economic Factors; *Educational
Policy; *Family Life; Guidelines; High Schools; Life Style; Parent
Participation; Program Implementation; *School Schedules; *Sleep
Identifiers: University of Minnesota
EJ579410 EA535453
Title: When Worlds Collide: Adolescent Need for Sleep Versus Societal
Demands.
Author(s): Carskadon, Mary A.
Source: Phi Delta Kappan, v80 n5 p348-53 Jan 1999
Publication Date: 1999
ISSN: 0031-7217
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
A school transition project examined effects on sleep and circadian rhythms in a group of 25 youngsters shifting from an 8:25 a.m. junior high school starting time to a 7:20 a.m. high school starting time. The average amount of sleep on school nights fell substantially for 9th and 10th graders, and was below the amount required for normal alertness. (16 references) (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Adolescents; *Behavior Patterns; Grade 10; Grade 9; High Schools;
*School Schedules; *Sleep; Social Influences; Student Employment;
*Student Needs
Identifiers: Alertness; *Circadian Activity Rhythms; Sleep Deprivation;
Social Consequences
EJ579409 EA535452
Title: The Prickly Politics of School Starting Times.
Author(s): Wahlstrom, Kyla L.
Source: Phi Delta Kappan, v80 n5 p344-47 Jan 1999
Publication Date: 1999
ISSN: 0031-7217
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Tinkering with school schedules to accommodate adolescents' sleep patterns is politically risky. A University of Minnesota study analyzing stakeholders' attitudes toward later high school starting times showed that changing a school's schedule provokes as emotional a reaction as that of closing a school or changing its attendance area. Open discussion helps. (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Adolescents; Educational Change; High Schools; Parent Attitudes;
*Politics of Education; *Psychological Patterns; *School Schedules;
*Sleep; *Student Needs; Teacher Attitudes
Identifiers: University of Minnesota
EJ585528 EA535601
Title: For Whom the School Bell Tolls.
Author(s): Lawton, Millicent
Source: School Administrator, v56 n3 p6-12 Mar 1999
Publication Date: 1999
ISSN: 0036-6439
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
As in Edina, Minnesota, many schools are finding adolescent sleep research persuasive enough to consider later or multiple starting times, risking parents' and teachers' wrath. Time adjustments become entangled with issues such as bus transportation, interscholastic athletics, student jobs, child-care arrangements, and juvenile crime. Tips are provided. (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Adolescents; Athletics; Attendance; *Behavior Patterns; Day Care;
*Scheduling; School Buses; Secondary Education; *Sleep; Student
Employment; Student Transportation
Identifiers: *Beginning of School Day; Edina Public Schools MN;
*Sleep Deprivation
EJ595548 JC508753
Title: Timing Is Everything.
Author(s): Dunn, Rita
Source: Momentum, v29 n4 p23-25 Oct-Nov 1998
Publication Date: 1998
ISSN: 0026-914X
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Opinion papers (120)
Explores time of day as a learning-style variable that affects student achievement. Provides some concrete steps for changing the learning styles of teachers and administrators, such as testing themselves to identify their current teaching styles or providing interested teachers with expert training in learning-styles approaches. (VWC)
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; *Cognitive Style; Elementary Education; *Instructional Effectiveness; Learning Strategies; Student Behavior; Teacher Behavior; Teaching Methods; *Time Factors (Learning)
EJ561024 EC618353
Title: Student Academic Responding Time as a Function of Classroom
Ecology and Time of Day.
Author(s): Muyskens, Paul; Ysseldyke, James E.
Source: Journal of Special Education, v31 n4 p411-24 Win 1998
Publication Date: 1998
ISSN: 0022-4669
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
This study investigated student academic responding time as a function of time of day for 122 students (grades 2-4) with and without disabilities in 10 urban and suburban schools. Student academic responding time was higher when an academic activity was occurring, an active task was underway, and an individual rather than a group structure was being used, irrelevant of time of day. (Author/DB)
Descriptors: Attention Control; Attention Span; *Classroom Environment; *Disabilities; Elementary Education; Learning Processes; *Student Reaction; *Time Factors (Learning); Time on Task
EJ556871 EA534194
Title: Giving Students the (Right) Time of Day.
Author(s): Callan, Roger John
Source: Educational Leadership, v55 n4 p84-87 Dec-Jan 1997-1998
Publication Date: 1998
ISSN: 0013-1784
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Evaluative (142)
Studies have shown that students understand material better and do better on tests at their preferred time of day. About 33% of high school students have no time-of-day preferences, fewer than 10% favor morning, fewer than 10% favor late morning, 15% prefer afternoon, and 15 percent prefer evening. Some have multiple time preferences. A three-pronged school system is an intriguing possibility. (13 references) (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Academic Achievement; *Biological Influences; High Schools; *School
Schedules; *Student Needs
Identifiers: *Circadian Activity Rhythms
ED395367 EA027554
Title: How To Implement and Supervise a Learning Style Program.
Author(s): Dunn, Rita
Author Affiliation: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
Alexandria, VA.(BBB30657)
Pages: 71
Publication Date: 1996
ISBN: 0-87120-259-X
Available from: EDRS Price MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from
EDRS.
Availability: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 (Stock No. 196010 $8.95).
Language: English
Document Type: Guides--Non-classroom (055)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Virginia
Many people prefer to learn in ways that differ from the ways in which other people of the same class, grade, age, nationality, race, culture, or religion prefer to do. The ways in which people prefer to learn are their "learning style preferences." This handbook was designed for supervisors interested in implementing and guiding staff in the proven educational methods of learning styles. Chapter 1 presents an overview of learning styles and explains how they develop. Chapter 2 describes the first steps toward implementation: conduct an inventory of students' learning styles; introduce learning styles to the staff and parents; and supplement learning-style training. The third chapter offers suggestions for classroom techniques: connecting learning styles and students; assessing students; strengthening students' understanding of learning styles; and personalizing learning styles. Strategies for redesigning classrooms for personalized learning are offered in chapter 4. (Contains 76 references and 5 figures.) (LMI)
Descriptors: Class Activities; Classroom Communication; *Classroom Techniques; *Cognitive Style; Elementary Secondary Education; *Individual Needs; *Instructional Effectiveness; Learning Processes; *Learning Strategies; Program Implementation; Teacher Supervision; *Teaching Methods
ED382598 SP035960
Title: Strategies for Educating Diverse Learners. Fastback 384.
Author(s): Dunn, Rita
Author Affiliation: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, Bloomington,
IN.(BBB06282)
Pages: 34
Publication Date: 1995
ISBN: 0-87367-384-0
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Availability: Phi Delta Kappa, 408 N. Union, P.O. Box 789, Bloomington,
IN 47402-
0789.
Language: English
Document Type: Guides--Non-classroom (055)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Indiana
Target Audience: Teachers; Practitioners
Research supports the belief that most students can learn, but each child concentrates, processes, absorbs, and remembers new and difficult information in a different way. Teaching failing students in ways that complement their learning styles increases their standardized test scores in several academic areas. Instructional practices useful with underachieving students focus on: (1) the child's need to feel physically comfortable, including sound versus quiet, bright lights versus soft, formal seating versus informal seating, mobility versus passivity, and other factors; (2) the need to identify and share with children how each best remembers new and difficult information; (3) whether children learn best alone, in pairs, with peers in cooperative or competitive teams, or with authoritative or collegial adults; (4) the time of day during which an individual experiences energy highs; (5) use of a global or analytic cognitive processing style; (6) use of alternative instructional strategies to maintain interest and avoid boredom; (7) experimentation to find the most effective teaching methods for each youngster; (8) tutoring; (9) effective use of direct instruction; (10) use of computer instruction to reinforce tactual learning; (11) focus on multicultural education; and (12) focus on multiple intelligences. (Contains 10 references.) (JDD)
Descriptors:
Classroom Environment; *Cognitive Style; *Educational Strategies;
Elementary Education; Elementary School Students; Individual Differences;
Student Characteristics; Student Needs; *Teaching Methods; *Underachievement
Identifiers: *Diversity (Student)
ED384592 SP036090
Title: The Effects of Time of Day on Student Attention and Achievement.
Author(s): Ammons, T. Lorraine; And Others
Pages: 66
Publication Date: May 1995
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143); Test/questionnaires (160)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Virginia
Research has revealed that students' alertness and attentiveness are affected by time of day preferences. A review of relevant literature indicated that preferences are significant in predicting performance levels for school children, and that matching students with peak times is not only beneficial for academic subjects, but also influences discipline and test-taking. Teachers are also shown to have ideal times of day that may affect their teaching abilities. The purpose of this study was to find out how time of day affects student attention and achievement. Fifth-grade students (n=36) in a small, rural school in Virginia, were given Learning Styles Inventories (LSIs) in order to assess their personal preference for time of day. Then, they were taught and tested using scripted laser disk science lessons in both morning and afternoon situations. The goal of this project was to determine if students had high levels of attention and achievement when taught at times that coincided with their time of day preferences as indicated on LSIs. The results suggested that time of day played a role in student achievement. Students taught at times that matched their learning style preferences scored significantly higher on lesson-related quizzes. Students also scored better on average at their teacher's ideal time of day. The study also indicated that the majority of students can accurately predict their preferred time of day. The study illustrated that time of day should be considered as teachers plan and implement lessons. Appendixes include: science lesson-related quizzes; the morning/afternoon preference survey; learning styles inventory; and off-task seating charts. (Contains 24 references.) (ND)
Descriptors:
Academic Achievement; Attention; *Class Organization; *Cognitive
Style; *Context Effect; Elementary School Science; Elementary School
Students; Grade 5; Intermediate Grades; *Performance Factors; Scheduling;
Science Instruction; Teaching Styles; *Time Factors (Learning);
Time Perspective
Identifiers: *Student Preferences; *Teacher Preferences
EJ498926 CS749237
Title: Early Morning Challenge: The Potential Effects of Chronobiology
on Taking the Scholastic Aptitude Test.
Author(s): Callan, Roger John
Source: Clearing House, v68 n3 p174-76 Jan-Feb 1995
Publication Date: 1995
ISSN: 0009-8655
Language: English
Document Type: Information Analysis (070); Journal articles (080);
Opinion papers (120)
Cites research to support the notion that the time of day in which the SAT is administered has a significant adverse impact on many students taking the test. Suggests that changes in testing procedures (making tests available via computer at any time of the day or year) will serve students. (RS)
Descriptors:
High Schools; Higher Education; Literature Reviews; *Test Format;
*Test Wiseness; *Testing Problems; *Time Factors (Learning)
Identifiers: *Chronobiology
ED383461 PS023357
Title: A Study of Half Day vs. All Day Pre-Kindergarten Readiness.
Author(s): Wheeler, Gay
Pages: 41
Publication Date: May 1995
Notes: Research paper, Sam Houston State University. Some pages
contain light print.
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Dissertations/Theses (040); Numerical/Quantitative
Data (110); Test/questionnaires (160)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Texas
A study examined whether a half-day or all-day kindergarten readiness program was the more beneficial in preparing students for kindergarten. A questionnaire was drawn up after research into this domain and submitted to 45 faculty members at a child development center. The findings were found to be somewhat evenly divided between the half-day and all-day readiness programs. However, the results provided small but significant evidence in favor of the half-day program as indicated by both the half-day and all-day teachers regarding the acquisition of learning skills, readiness skills, and social skills. The half-day program seemed to be better for the 4- and 5-year-old child, if a choice is available. Results also indicated that readiness and social skills are learned in the morning when a child is rested. (The questionnaire and a progress check list for the 4-year-olds are appended). (AA)
Descriptors: Academic Achievement; Cognitive Development; Emotional Development; *Full Day Half Day Schedules; Preschool Children; Preschool Education; Preschool Evaluation; *Preschool Teachers; Program Design; *Program Effectiveness; Program Length; *School Readiness; Social Development; *Teacher Attitudes; Time Factors (Learning)
EJ479200 CS747220
Title: In Greensboro, North Carolina: Learning Style Program Boosts
Achievement and Test Scores.
Author(s): Klavas, Angela
Source: Clearing House, v67 n3 p149-51 Jan-Feb 1994
Publication Date: 1994
ISSN: 0009-8655
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Descriptive (141)
Describes how a North Carolina elementary school altered teaching methods to suit the varied learning styles of the students based on the results of a learning styles inventory. Discusses changes made based on students' perceptual preferences, time of day preferences, environmental preferences, and sociological preferences. Notes that discipline problems dropped dramatically and test scores rose precipitously. (RS)
Descriptors:
*Academic Achievement; *Cognitive Style; Discipline Problems; Elementary
Education; *Learning Strategies; Program Descriptions
Identifiers: North Carolina (Greensboro)
EJ483273 CS747657
Title: Effects of Time of Day Instruction on Reading Achievement
of Below Grade Readers.
Author(s): Barron, Bennie G.; And Others
Source: Reading Improvement, v31 n1 p59-60 Spr 1994
Publication Date: 1994
ISSN: 0034-0510
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Determines whether the time of day when reading is taught has an effect on below-grade-level students' mastery of reading skills. Indicates an overall increase in mean scores for the mastery of reading skills for afternoon instruction as compared with morning instruction. (HB)
Descriptors:
Higher Education; *Reading Improvement; *Reading Instruction; Reading
Research; Reading Skills; *Time Factors (Learning)
Identifiers: English Education
ED362310 PS021763
Title: The Effects of Nursery School Environment on Teachers' Perceptions
of Children's Behavioural Difficulties.
Author(s): Papatheodorou, Theodora; Ramasut, Arlene
Pages: 34
Publication Date: September 1993
Note: Paper presented at the European Conference on the Quality
of Early Childhood Education (3rd, Kriopigi, Greece, September 1-3,
1993).
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC02 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143); Speeches/meeting papers
(150)
Geographic Source: United Kingdom; Wales
This study examined teachers' perceptions of the nature and extent of behavior problems exhibited by children in nursery classes. A total of 154 teachers from public and private schools in rural, small town, and urban areas in Greece completed a self-reporting questionnaire and an evaluation of their students' behavior. The results showed differences in the overall prevalence rate of behavior problems in relation to geographic region and population density. Children in cities were perceived as exhibiting more problems than children in small towns, while rural children were perceived as exhibiting more behavior problems than urban or small town children. Children in larger classes were perceived by their teachers to have more conduct problems than children in smaller classes. Teachers reported that afternoon nursery classes presented more than twice as many behavior problems than morning sessions. These findings generally support the view that environment, both of the immediate classroom and the wider community, plays an important role in teachers' perceptions of children's behavior. An appendix provides sample questions from the teacher questionnaire. Contains 55 references. (MDM)
Descriptors:
Academic Achievement; Class Size; *Environmental Influences; Foreign
Countries; *Geographic Location; *Nursery Schools; Preschool Education;
Preschool Teachers; Rural Urban Differences; *Social Cognition;
*Student Behavior; *Teacher Attitudes
Identifiers: *Greece
EJ456557 SO523935
Title: The Ethnic Composition of Nursery Classes and Its Effect
on Children's Adjustment to Nursery.
Author(s): Davies, J. A.; Brember, I.
Source: Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental
Educational Psychology, v12 n1 p25-36 1992
Publication Date: 1992
ISSN: 0144-3410
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Target Audience: Teachers; Researchers; Practitioners
Reports details of a study of teacher perceptions of children's adjustment to preschool. Indicates teacher perceptions that girls, morning class attenders, and children in multiethnic classes adjusted better to school than did boys, all-white British classes, and afternoon attenders. Identifies induction policies, group make-up, and teacher subjectivity as possible reasons for the perceptions. (SG)
Descriptors:
Attitude Measures; *Demography; *Ethnic Distribution; Foreign Countries;
Preschool Education; Sex Differences; *Student Adjustment; *Teacher
Attitudes
Identifiers: Great Britain
EJ452810 EA527252
Title: How We Turned around a Problem School.
Author(s): Stone, Pete
Source: Principal, v72 n2 p34-36 Nov 1992
Publication Date: 1992
ISSN: 0271-6062
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Descriptive (141)
After discovering at least 64 percent of their students were either tactile or kinesthetic learners, educators at North Carolina elementary school began grouping kids according to their tactile/kinesthetic or auditory/visual strengths and altered reading instruction schedules every three weeks so that each group had opportunities to learn at best time of day. Discipline, achievement, and student attitudes improved considerably. (MLH)
Descriptors:
*Academic Achievement; *Cognitive Style; *Educational Environment;
Elementary Education; *Learning Modalities; Learning Processes;
Principals; School Schedules; Scores; Standardized Tests; *Student
Behavior; *Student Needs; Teacher Morale
Identifiers: *North Carolina (Charlotte)
EJ431844 SO522356
Title: The Effects of Gender and Attendance Period on Children's
Adjustment to Nursery Classes.
Author(s): Davies, Julie; Brember, Ivy
Source: British Educational Research Journal, v17 n1 p73-82 1991
Publication Date: 1991
ISSN: 0141-1926
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Target Audience: Researchers
Analyzes the effects of gender and time of attendance on children's adjustment to English nursery classes attached to primary schools. Results show boys were perceived as less well adjusted to school than are girls. Afternoon attendees were found to be less well adjusted than morning attendees. Discusses strategies to help those who are less well adjusted. (NL)
Descriptors:
*Adjustment (to Environment); Analysis of Variance; Attendance;
Child Development; *Dual Enrollment; Educational Research; Family
School Relationship; Foreign Countries; *Preschool Education; *Sex
Differences; *Student Adjustment; Student Characteristics; Student
Needs
Identifiers: England
EJ434960 SE547981
Title: Types of Errors Exhibited in a Remedial Mathematics Course.
Author(s): Pinchback, Carolyn L.
Source: Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, v13 n2 p53-62
Spr 1991
Publication Date: 1991
ISSN: 0272-8893
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Reported is a study of types of errors exhibited by students of intermediate algebra at the college level and the effect the time of day instruction has on students' performance. Results indicated that two types of errors, conceptual and prerequisite, and that student performance is better in the morning. (MDH)
Descriptors:
*Algebra; *Error Patterns; Mathematics Education; Postsecondary
Education; *Remedial Mathematics; Research Reports
Identifiers: *Error Analysis (Mathematics); *Learning Environment
EJ438613 TM516189
Title: Teacher Stability from Morning to Afternoon and from Year
to Year.
Author(s): Meyer, Linda A.; And Others
Source: American Educational Research Journal, v28 n4 p825-47 Win
1991
Publication Date: 1991
ISSN: 0002-8312
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Stability from morning to afternoon and from year to year of 25 kindergarten and first grade teachers was examined for time and frequency of interactions during reading, story reading, and all instruction. Possible reasons for the lesser stability of first grade teachers are discussed. (SLD)
Descriptors:
*Behavior Patterns; Classroom Observation Techniques; *Educational
Practices; *Elementary School Teachers; Full Day Half Day Schedules;
Grade 1; Kindergarten; Longitudinal Studies; Primary Education;
*Teacher Behavior; Teacher Response; Teacher Student Relationship
Identifiers: *Behavioral Stability; *Consistency (Behavior)
ED317508 SP032112
Title: Teacher Stability Revisited: How Consistent Are Teachers
from Morning to Afternoon and from Year to Year? Technical Report
No. 472.
Author(s): Meyer, Linda A.; And Others
Author Affiliation: Illinois Univ., Urbana. Center for the Study
of Reading.(BBB14200)
Pages: 66
Publication Date: May 1989
Sponsoring Agency: Office of Educational Research and Improvement
(ED), Washington, DC. (EDD00036)
Contract No: OEG-0087-C1001
Available from: EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: Reports--Research (143)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Illinois
This report presents results of classroom observations of kindergarten and first grade teachers. Nine full days of observations were completed with each of the teachers for 2 consecutive school years. Results are presented in terms of kindergarten teachers' time allocated to reading and to all instruction as well as their frequency of instructional interactions during reading instruction and while reading stories to their classes. AM to PM results are compared for teachers teaching half-day classes. In addition, year to year comparisons are presented for teachers of half-day and full-day kindergarten instructional interactions. Correlations for kindergarten and first grade teachers for AM/PM and year to year frequencies of decoding interactions were all above .88 and significant above .00l level. Discussion focuses upon the greater likelihood of stability for half-day kindergarten teachers than for first grade teachers, the difference between these results and findings by other researchers suggesting that teachers' behaviors lack stability, and possible explanations for why some teachers may be somewhat less stable than their peers. Data from the study are presented on charts and tables. (Author/JD)
Descriptors: *Elementary School Teachers; Grade 1; Interaction; Kindergarten; *Preschool Teachers; Primary Education; *Reading Instruction; *Teacher Behavior; Teacher Student Relationship; *Time Management
EJ359131 CS734686
Title: A Timely Solution: Effects of Chronobiology on Achievement
and Behavior.
Author(s): Dunn, Rita; And Others
Source: Clearing House, v61 n1 p5-8 Sep 1987
Available from: UMI
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
Advances the notion that students should be assigned to classes according to the time of day they learn best. (JC)
Descriptors:
*Cognitive Style; Educational Research; Elementary Education; Grouping
(Instructional Purposes); *Learning Processes; Mathematics Instruction;
Reading Instruction; *Scheduling; Student Motivation; *Time Factors
(Learning)
Identifiers: *Chronobiology; Time Studies; Time Work Fatigue
EJ353277 SP516789
Title: Effects of Time-of-Day of Instruction on Beginning Reading
Achievement.
Author(s): Davis, Zephaniah T.
Source: Journal of Educational Research, v80 n3 p138-40 Jan-Feb
1987
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
This study was undertaken to determine whether afternoon reading instruction results in greater achievement for beginning readers than does morning instruction. One hundred first grade pupils participated in the study. Implications for practice and continued research are discussed. (Author/MT)
Descriptors: *Beginning Reading; Grade 1; Memory; Primary Education; *Reading Achievement; *Reading Instruction; *Time Factors (Learning)
EJ349224 EC191608
Title: A Single-Subject Study of the Effects of Time on Task and
Time of Day on Productivity and Achievement in a Dysgraphic Student.
Author: Morton, L. L.
Source: Canadian Journal for Exceptional Children, v3 n1 p23-28
Fall 1986
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
Journal Announcement: CIJJUN87
A single-subject study of the effects of time on task and time of day on written productivity in a dysgraphic learning-disabled fourth grader revealed that continuous adult direction increased time on task; that concurrent achievement gains using standardized tests accrued; and that enhanced writing productivity was evident in the afternoon. (Author/DB)
Descriptors:
Case Studies; *Learning Disabilities; *Productivity; *Time Factors
(Learning); *Time on Task; *Writing Difficulties
Identifiers: *Dysgraphia; *Time of Day
EJ324335 RC505996
Title: Time-of-Day Effects upon Children's Memory and Analogical
Reasoning.
Author(s): Morton, Larry L.; Kershner, John R.
Source: Alberta Journal of Educational Research, v31 n1 p26-34 Mar
1985
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
Target Audience: Teachers; Practitioners
Time-of-day effects on children's incidental visual memory for words and ability to solve verbal analogies were investigated. Thirty-six normal, learning disabled, and educable retarded children were assigned morning or afternoon learning/recall sessions. All showed afternoon superiority for superficially processed words, but no differences for words processed at deeper semantic levels. (DC)
Descriptors:
Arousal Patterns; Comparative Analysis; Disabilities; Elementary
Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; *Incidental Learning; *Learning
Theories; *Memory; Mild Mental Retardation; Recognition (Psychology);
Semantics; *Time Factors (Learning); *Verbal Learning
Identifiers: *Analogy; Canada; Ontario (Cobourg); *Visually Evoked
Responses
ED257863 TM850330
Title: Study of the Instructional Effectiveness of Last Period Middle
School Classes.
Author(s): Brooks, Jennifer Giddings; Tees, Sandra
Author Affiliation: Fort Worth Independent School District, Tex.
Dept. of Research and Evaluation.
Publication Date: Mar 1985
Note: 20p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (69th, Chicago, IL, March 31-April
4, 1985). Best copy available.
Available from: EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: CONFERENCE PAPER (150); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Texas
Target Audience: Researchers
To facilitate cost effective bus schedules, middle school classes begin one hour later than high school classes in the Fort Worth Independent School District, Texas. This study investigated whether middle school students were adversely affected, in terms of grades and classroom performance, by having the class day extended to 4 p.m. High schools were included in the study to determine the effect of time of day on last period students. Grades were collected from sets (a morning class and a comparable afternoon class taught by the same teacher) of fall, 1983, English or math classes. Classroom observations were made in the spring. Findings indicated that: (1) grades were not significantly higher in morning classes. Middle School student grades were higher in last period classes; (2) time on task was not significantly higher in the morning; (3) noise and activity levels were higher in last period classes, but this only affected student performance when teacher management skills were weak; and (4) the later start time caused individual student problems and scheduling difficulties for school personnel. Since middle school student achievement was not affected by the later time for last period classes, no schedule changes were recommended except for scheduling extra-curricular activities during before school hours when feasible. Appended are teacher and staff comments and a table showing distribution of student grades for Fall, 1983, by subject, level, and teacher for first and last period classes. (BS)
Descriptors:
*Academic Achievement; *Class Organization; *Classroom Environment;
English Instruction; High Schools; Intermediate Grades; Mathematics
Instruction; Middle Schools; Performance Factors; Physical Activity
Level; *School Schedules; School Surveys; Secondary Education; Student
Behavior; *Time Factors (Learning); Time on Task
Identifiers: *Fort Worth Independent School District TX
EJ287816 CG525002
Title: The Effect of Time of Day on Problem Solving and Classroom
Behavior.
Author(s): Zagar, Robert; Bowers, Norman D.
Source: Psychology in the Schools, v20 n3 p337-45 Jul 1983
Available from: UMI
Language: English
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143)
Observed fluctuations in problem-solving and classroom behaviors for 43 nonmedicated pupils who had attention deficits with hyperkinesis. Results showed that on problem-solving tasks except Digit Span, pupils performed better in the morning. In classroom behavior, all pupils exhibited more interference, off-task, noncompliance, and minor motor movement in the afternoon. (WAS)
Descriptors: *Attention Span; *Elementary School Students; *Hyperactivity; Intermediate Grades; Learning Strategies; *Problem Solving; *Student Behavior; *Time Factors (Learning)
ED231154 EC152599
Title: Time of Day and Its Effect on Pupil Problem Solving and Classroom
Behavior.
Author(s): Bowers, Norman D.; Zagar, Robert J.
Publication Date: Apr 1983
Notes: 16p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (Montreal, Canada, April 11-14,
1983).
Available from: EDRS Price - MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
Language: English
Document Type: RESEARCH REPORT (143); CONFERENCE PAPER (150)
Geographic Source: U.S.; Illinois
Fluctuations in problem solving and classroom behaviors during the school day for 43 hyperkinetic intermediate students with attention deficits were examined. Ss were observed with the Stonybrook Observation Code and tested with the Stroop Color-Word Test, Matching Familiar Figures, Porteus Mazes, and Digit Span. Data were collected in counterbalanced morning and afternoon sessions. Analysis of results revealed that Ss performed better in the morning on problem solving tasks except Digit Span. In classroom behavior, all Ss exhibited more interference, off task behavior, noncompliance, and minor motor movement in the afternoon. (Author/CL)
Descriptors: *Attention Deficit Disorders; Behavior Problems; *Hyperactivity; Intermediate Grades; Problem Solving; *Time Factors (Learning); *Time on Task
EJ269290 TM507254
Title: Morning versus Afternoon Testing and Children's Intelligence
Test Performance.
Author(s): Leigh, Cheryl J.; Reynolds, Cecil R.
Source: Perceptual and Motor Skills, v55 n1 p93-94 Aug 1982
Available from: Reprint: UMI
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQs for matched-pair subjects were compared, evaluating performance in morning and afternoon testing. No significant differences in mean IQ as a function of time of testing were shown. Greater variability occurred for morning performance on the Verbal and Full Scale measures. (Author/CM)
Descriptors:
Elementary Secondary Education; *Intelligence Tests; *Performance
Factors; *Psychological Testing; Student Behavior; Testing Problems;
*Time Factors (Learning)
Identifiers: *Testing Conditions; *Time Oriented Data; Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (Rev)
EJ269254 SP512192
Title: When to Teach What to Whom.
Author: Graeber, R. Curtis
Source: Today's Education, v71 n3 p35-37 1982
Available from: Reprint: UMI
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); PROJECT DESCRIPTION (141)
Research indicates that time of day affects how people encode, store, and retrieve information. Students may learn better if class schedules are adjusted to natural body clocks. Subjects that require memorization or use of memorized materials might be best for mornings; afternoons may be best for integration of verbal materials. (PP)
Descriptors: *Biological Influences; *Cognitive Ability; Elementary Secondary Education; Individual Differences; *Learning Processes; Memory; Retention (Psychology); *School Schedules; *Student Characteristics; *Time Factors (Learning) Identifiers: *Circadian Activity Rhythms
EJ269293 TM507257
Title: Time-of-Day Effects in Performance by Seventh Grade Students
on Two Measures of Impulse Control.
Author(s): Simpson, Madeline L.
Source: Perceptual and Motor Skills, v55 n1 p115-21 Aug 1982
Available from: Reprint: UMI
Language: English
Document Type: JOURNAL ARTICLE (080); RESEARCH REPORT (143)
The differential performance of boys and girls on selected measures of impulse control was examined. No differences were shown between morning and afternoon groups on two Tuesdays. Girls manifested circadian effects more, made fewer delayed-reward choices, and made less accurate time estimations. (Author/CM)
Descriptors: *Delay of Gratification; Grade 7; Junior High Schools; Measurement Techniques; *Performance Factors; *Self Control; *Sex Differences; *Time Perspective Identifiers: *Impulsiveness; Testing Conditions; Time Span Measurement
EJ239588 TM505828
Title: Body Rhythms, the School Day, and Academic Achievement.
Author(s): Biggers, Julian L.
Source: Journal of Experimental Education, v49 n1 p45-7 Fall 1980
Publication Date: 1980
Language: English
Document Type: Journal articles (080); Reports--Research (143)
Efficiency
on a variety of tasks has been shown to follow the body's daily
temperature rhythm. One-way analysis of variance of data from students
in grades 7-12 found a significant relationship among time of
maximum alertness and age, grade level, and grade averages. (Author/GK)
Descriptors: *Academic Achievement; *Age Differences; *Grade Point
Average; *School Schedules; Secondary Education; *Secondary School
Students
Identifiers: *Circadian Rhythms
